Architecture Sculpture and Pottery
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Architecture Sculpture and Pottery in Indian Art and Culture
Indian art and culture demonstrate a magnificent heritage spanning thousands of years through three interconnected yet distinct art forms: architecture, sculpture, and pottery. These artistic expressions evolved from the ancient Indus Valley Civilization to the modern era, reflecting religious beliefs, aesthetic sensibilities, and technological advancements.
Difference Between Architecture and Sculpture
Architecture and sculpture represent two fundamentally different art forms with distinctive characteristics:
Architecture refers to the design and construction of buildings serving functional purposes. It requires a mixture of various materials such as stone, wood, glass, metal, and sand, along with detailed engineering mathematics and precise measurements. Architecture is visible in both exterior and interior parts of structures, serves primarily functional purposes with aesthetic considerations as secondary, and involves multiple phases including project brief, design, drawing, and implementation.
Sculpture, in contrast, represents relatively smaller three-dimensional works of fine art. It usually employs a single type of material (stone, bronze, terracotta), relies on creativity and imagination without heavy dependence on precise measurements, is visible only from the exterior, serves purely aesthetic purposes as a medium of expression, and involves processes like carving, modeling, or casting.
While these are distinct forms, they often intersect in classical buildings through relief sculptures built into walls and sculptural columns serving as architectural support.
Classification of Indian Architecture
Indian architecture can be systematically classified into three major periods: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, with each period containing distinct sub-classifications.
A. Ancient Indian Architecture
Ancient Indian architecture spans from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3200-1500 BCE) to approximately 1200 CE, encompassing several important phases.
1. Harappan Architecture (c. 3200-1500 BCE)….. Click to read
Harappan architecture marked India’s first urban civilization, featuring extensive town planning with gridiron patterns, fortifications, elaborate drainage systems, and multi-story brick buildings. Unlike modern constructions, Harappans joined bricks with mud, gypsum, or bitumen instead of cement. Notable structures included the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, granaries, reservoirs, and citadels demonstrating advanced engineering knowledge.
2. Mauryan Architecture (322-185 BCE)
The Mauryan period witnessed a revolutionary shift from wood to stone architecture. Mauryan architecture included monumental stone pillars with animal capitals (displaying Persian and Achaemenid influences), rock-cut caves such as Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves (the oldest surviving rock-cut architecture in India with mirror-polished interiors), stupas like Sanchi, and palaces. The period excelled in wood polishing techniques that made surfaces glisten like mirrors.
3. Post-Mauryan Architecture (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE)
Post-Mauryan architecture evolved through three major phases under the Sunga, Satavahana, and Kushan dynasties.
Sunga Architecture (184-72 BCE) witnessed the enlargement of earlier Mauryan stupas. The Sungas replaced brick and wooden structures with stone constructions at sites like Bharhut and Sanchi. They introduced the concept of toranas (beautifully decorated gateways) to stupas, showing Hellenistic influences. Important sites include Bharhut Stupa, stone-built structures at Sanchi, railings at Bodhgaya Stupa, and constructions at Bhaja near Pune.
Satavahana Architecture (c. 230 BCE – 220 CE) remarkably developed Buddhist architecture with the construction of magnificent stupas at Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Jaggayyapeta, and Ghantasala. They created elaborate chaityas (worship halls) and viharas (monasteries) at sites including Bhaja, Bedsa, Junnar, Karle, Kanheri, Kondana, Nasik, Pitalkhora, and Ajanta—all in Maharashtra. These structures featured intricate carvings and sculptural decorations.
Kushan Architecture (1st-3rd century CE) pioneered representing Buddha in human form instead of symbols. Under Kanishka’s patronage, numerous monasteries, stupas (including the famous Peshawar Stupa), and temples at Mathura were constructed. This period marked the beginning of the Gandhara School of Art.
4. Gupta Architecture (4th-6th century CE)
The Gupta period marked the formative phase of temple construction in India, representing a golden age of creativity. The spread of Bhakti ideology and increased importance of image worship resulted in building several free-standing temples.
Temple Architecture: Gupta architecture marked the transition from wooden to stone temples and from rock-cut shrines to structural temples. Early Gupta temples featured small structures with central shrines, square chambers with columned porticos or verandahs, and flat roofs with spouts for water drainage. Key architectural elements like the Shikhara (temple tower) and Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) became prominent. Notable examples include Temple No. 17 at Sanchi, Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh (featuring Panchayatana style with subsidiary shrines at four corners), Bhitargaon Temple near Kanpur, Parvati Temple at Nachna-Kuthara, and the brick temple at Bhitargaon.
Cave Architecture: The Guptas popularized rock-cut cave architecture seen in Udayagiri Caves (containing the earliest intact body of Hindu art in India with earliest depictions of Hindu deities like Vishnu and Shiva), Ajanta Caves (decorated with magnificent fresco paintings depicting Buddha’s life and Jataka tales), and Bagh Caves (featuring mural paintings in simpler ornamentation than Ajanta).
Buddhist Architecture: Magnificent stupas, chaityas, and viharas were constructed at Sarnath (including the spectacular Dhamekh Stupa with geometric patterns and artistic designs), Nalanda (where Kumaragupta-I founded the Buddhist University), and Rajgir (including the Mani-naga Jaina temple).
5. South Indian Architecture (6th-14th century CE)
South Indian architecture developed a distinct Dravidian style fundamentally different from North Indian architecture, evolving through several dynastic periods.
Pallava Architecture (AD 600-900) pioneered the transition from rock-cut temples to structural temples. The Pallavas created the greatest accomplishments of rock-cut architecture at Mahabalipuram (including the famous Shore Temple and Pancha Rathas). The Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram represented a fully realized temple complex with towered sanctuary and mandapa (columned hall). Key features included vimana (temple towers), mandapa (pillared halls), gopuram (gateway towers), and intricate sculptures depicting mythological stories.
Chola Architecture (AD 900-1150) achieved its peak at Thanjavur under Chola ruler Rajaraja I. Chola architecture perfected the Dravidian temple style inherited from the Pallavas with stone as the predominant material. Sanctuaries featured rising pyramid towers crowned with dome-like roofs. The Vimanas attained greater grandeur—the temple tower of Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur reaches 66 meters. The Cholas erected magnificent temples including Brihadeshwara Temple at Tanjavur (Raja Raja Chola), Brihadeshwara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Rajendra Chola), and Airavateswara Temple at Darasuram (Raja Raja II). Sculptures and paintings adorned walls, with bronze sculptures of this era considered the finest in South India, especially those depicting Lord Shiva in his many aspects.
Hoysala Architecture (AD 1100-1350) featured temples with complicated plans having numerous angled projections. Carved surfaces executed with remarkable precision, usually in chlorite, characterized this period. The columns were lathe-turned or multi-faceted. Temples from the Hoysala period can be seen at Belur, Halebid, and Sringeri.
Vijayanagara Architecture (AD 1343-1565) represented a vibrant combination of Chalukya, Hoysala, Rashtrakuta, Pallava, Pandya, and Chola styles. Its stylistic hallmark was the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls), and Rayagopura (tower). Unique contributions included Yali columns (pillars with charging horses), balustrades, and ornate pillared manatapa. Artisans used locally available hard granite for durability. The main contributions included tall massive gopurams, multiple mandapas, carved pillars with rearing simhas (lions) and yalis (lions with elephant trunks), and numerous shrines to minor deities.
B. Medieval Indian Architecture
Medieval architecture (c. 13th-18th centuries) witnessed the development of Indo-Islamic architecture under Delhi Sultanate and Mughal rule.
1. Delhi Sultanate Architecture (13th-16th century)
Delhi Sultanate architecture introduced Islamic architectural elements including arches, domes, minarets, mihrabs, and Quranic calligraphic inscriptions, while adopting Indian temple architecture features like high plinths and stone construction. The Sultanate used extensive lime mortar and sandstones (yellow and red). Notable examples include Qutub Minar (the tallest brick minaret in the world), Alai-Darwaza (introducing true arch construction), Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, and various tomb structures. The architecture combined functionality with aesthetic appeal, creating a synthesis of Islamic and Hindu architectural traditions.
2. Mughal Architecture (16th-18th century)
Mughal architecture reached its zenith under Shah Jahan, characterized by large bulbous domes and slender minarets, massive halls and vaulted gateways, delicate ornamentation and perfect symmetry, Char Bagh (quadrilateral gardens), extensive use of white marble alongside red sandstone, double domes, and recessed archways within rectangular frontons. The Mughals perfected the art of pietra dura (inlay work with semi-precious stones).
Notable Mughal monuments include Humayun’s Tomb (begun 1564, introducing Persian garden tomb concept), Fatehpur Sikri (founded 1569, Akbar’s capital), Agra Fort (1565-74), Jama Masjid Delhi, and the Taj Mahal—considered the crowning achievement of Mughal architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site representing the pinnacle of Indo-Islamic architecture.
C. Modern Indian Architecture
Modern Indian architecture (late 18th century onwards) emerged from colonial influences and evolved through distinct stylistic trends.
1. Indo-Gothic Architecture (19th-early 20th century)
Indo-Gothic architecture (also known as Indo-Saracenic, Hindu-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, or Neo-Mughal) was a revivalist architectural style developed by British architects in British India during the late 19th century. This style represented a magnificent fusion of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture with traditional Indian architectural elements, particularly Mughal and Hindu motifs.
Key Features included pointed arches and cusped (scalloped) arches, ribbed vaults and tracery, spires and tall towers with minarets, bulbous (onion-shaped) domes and dome-shaped pavilions (chhatris), intricate stone carvings and ornamental tracery, overhanging eaves and vaulted roofs, jali (latticework) and pierced open arcading, colonnaded balconies, and extensive use of red sandstone with decorative elements.
Prominent Architects who pioneered this style included Edwin Lutyens, Herbert Baker, Henry Irwin, Frederick W. Stevens, Robert Chisholm, William Emerson, George Wittet, and Charles Mant.
Notable Examples include:
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus), Mumbai (1878-1888): Designed by F.W. Stevens, this UNESCO World Heritage Site represents the finest Victorian Gothic building in India. Built according to High Victorian Gothic design based on late medieval Italian models, it features a remarkable stone dome (the first octagonal ribbed masonry dome adapted to Italian Gothic Revival style), turrets, pointed arches, and eccentric ground plan close to traditional Indian palace architecture. The building epitomizes tropical Gothic architecture with polychromatic stone, decorated tiles, marble, and stained glass. The central dome carries a colossal 16’6″ figure symbolizing “Progress” holding a flaming torch and spoked wheel
Gateway of India, Mumbai (George Wittet, 1924)
Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (William Emerson, 1921)
Madras High Court, Chennai (Henry Irwin, 1892)
Mysore Palace (Henry Irwin, 1912)
Bombay High Court (1878)
University of Mumbai (1878)
The Indo-Gothic style gained prominence particularly after 1857, as British architects sought to legitimize colonial rule by adapting Western architectural forms to the Indian context. The style was employed for civic and public buildings including government offices, railway stations, universities, law courts, post offices, and churches.
2. Neo-Roman Style (early 20th century)
Post-1911, British constructions were executed according to Neo-Roman or Neoclassical style. The architecture of New Delhi, designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, represented the finest example of this style, often described as the “Rome of Hindustan”.
Key Features included:
Classical proportions with symmetry and balanced facades
Use of columns (Ionic, Doric, Corinthian orders), pediments, and domes
Confluence of all architectural styles creating hybrid expressions
Focus on circular buildings
Overuse of oriental motifs to realize Western architectural designs
The concept of upturned dome (inverted dome), as seen in Rashtrapati Bhavan and the Supreme Court
Use of locally available materials including sandstone and marble
Anonymous constructions without particularly interesting features
Simplicity, modernity, and utility compromised due to hybrid nature
Notable Examples include:
Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential Palace), New Delhi
Parliament House (Sansad Bhavan), New Delhi
India Gate, New Delhi
Supreme Court of India, New Delhi
Connaught Place, New Delhi
Writers’ Building, Kolkata (1777) – featuring classical proportions and Roman civic structure facade
St. Andrew’s Church, Chennai (1821) – Greek Revival style with circular nave and Ionic columns
The neoclassical architecture reflected British imperial ambitions while attempting to incorporate Indian elements, creating structures that served administrative and symbolic purposes for colonial governance.
Sculpture in Indian Art
Indian sculpture evolved through distinct schools and periods, each with unique characteristics representing technological advancement and artistic sophistication.
Harappan Sculpture (c. 3200-1500 BCE) included seals with animal motifs (especially the unicorn and Pashupati seal showing a proto-Shiva figure), bronze figures like the famous Dancing Girl (demonstrating lost-wax casting technique), stone sculptures including the Bearded Man (showing fine realistic modeling), and extensive terracotta figurines depicting mother goddesses, animals, and human forms with realistic anatomical details.
Post-Mauryan Sculptural Schools emerged as major centers of Buddhist art during the Kushan period (1st century BCE to 5th century CE):
Gandhara School (Northwestern India, 1st century BCE-5th century CE) blended Greco-Roman artistic traditions with Indian Buddhist themes, using bluish-grey sandstone. Features included Hellenistic influence with wavy hair, halos, realistic drapery folds, standing and seated Buddha images with intricate garment details, Greco-Roman elements like contrapposto poses and idealized anatomical proportions, and muscular physiques depicting physical beauty.
Mathura School (Central India, 1st century BCE-5th century CE) developed indigenous style using spotted red sandstone, characterized by round faces with broader features, traditional Indian iconography blending Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain elements, stylized symbolic representations of divinities, and famous works including seated Buddha in Padmasana surrounded by Bodhisattvas.
Amaravati School (Southern India, 2nd century BCE-3rd century CE) patronized by Satavahanas, used white marble with slim, blithe figures featuring complex curves, dynamic compositions with fluid lines and movement, rich narrative imagery depicting Buddha’s life stories through Jataka tales, and overlapping figures with varied postures creating dramatic scenes.
Gupta Sculpture (4th-6th century CE) represented the classical phase of Indian sculpture, achieving perfection in form and spiritual expression. The Sarnath School produced sublime Buddha images with transparent clinging garments, serene expressions, and spiritual idealization. Sculptures at Deogarh temple featured magnificent reliefs including Nara-Narayana, Gajendramoksha, and Vishnu on Shesha.
Chola Sculpture (medieval period) produced bronze masterpieces like Nataraja—the cosmic dancing Shiva, representing the pinnacle of South Indian bronze casting technique with delicately modeled figures showing grace and movement.
Pottery in Indian Art
Indian pottery evolved through distinct cultural phases, demonstrating technological advancement and artistic sophistication.
Harappan Pottery (c. 3200-1500 BCE) represented the peak of ancient pottery craft. Indus potters produced plain, colored, and glazed pottery using good quality clay baked in controlled heat. Manufacturing employed fast wheel-throwing, mold-making, and hand-forming techniques. Shapes included bowls, vases, storage jars, drinking vessels, and miniature pottery. The famous Red and Black Pottery featured red backgrounds with glossy black painted designs depicting trees, birds, animals, and geometric patterns. Kilns were round and domical with perforated floors for heat circulation.
Ancient Pottery Traditions included several distinct types representing different cultural phases:
Ochre Coloured Pottery (Bronze Age, Indo-Gangetic plain): Linked with Harappan and Vedic cultures, consisting of red slip acquiring ochre coloration
Black and Red Ware Pottery (Bronze and Iron Age): Associated with subsistence agriculture and increased iron tool usage
Painted Grey Ware (Vedic period, 1000-600 BCE): Linked with urban settlements, characterized by beautiful grey pottery decorated with geometric black designs
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) (Mauryan period, 700-100 BCE): Luxury ceramics with shiny black surface and red spots, associated with urban elites and the rise of major cities
Medieval Pottery (13th-18th centuries) witnessed introduction of glazed pottery under Turkic rulers who encouraged Persian and Central Asian potters to settle in Northern India. Glazed pottery of Persian models with Indian designs emerged in Gujarat and Maharashtra, evolving into traditions like Blue Pottery of Jaipur. Pottery styles diversified into unglazed varieties (paper-thin, scraffito, and polished) and glazed pottery (with white backgrounds and blue-green patterns).
Terracotta Art: Terracotta production traces back to Mehrgarh (8th-7th millennium BCE) with crude handmade unbaked clay figurines, transitioning to baked terracotta by the 5th millennium BCE. Harappan terracotta demonstrated remarkable diversity with animal forms outnumbering human figures. Female figurines typically depicted the Standing Mother Goddess—semi-naked, thin-waisted, wide-hipped with conical breasts, fan-shaped headdress, and heavy jewelry. Technology involved hand-modeling soft clay with added degraissants (sand, mica, lime), sun-drying, kiln-baking, and subsequent decoration. These terracottas were found primarily in domestic contexts, suggesting their use as common commodities rather than consecrated ritual objects.
