Art of the Harappan Civilization

Art of the Harappan Civilization: 

(You can read summary directly which is below the chapter)

The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3200-1500 BCE), one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, demonstrated remarkable artistic sophistication and technological prowess. Flourishing alongside Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations across approximately 800,000 square kilometers of the northwestern Indian subcontinent, the Harappan people created diverse art forms including seals, sculptures, terracotta figurines, pottery, beads, ornaments, and meticulously planned urban centers that continue to astound archaeologists and historians.​

A. Seals of Harappan Civilization

Harappan seals represent one of the most distinctive and enigmatic art forms of the civilization, with thousands discovered from various sites during archaeological excavations.​

Materials and Composition: Seals were primarily crafted from steatite (a soft stone composed of compressed talc), though some were made from agate, chert, copper, faience, terracotta, gold, ivory, and copper. The materials were selected for their intrinsic beauty rather than mere availability.​

Shape and Dimensions: The standard Harappan seal was typically a square plaque measuring 2×2 inches (approximately 5×5 cm), though variations existed. Button seals with geometric motifs and larger seals also appeared in the archaeological record.​ 

Artistic Features: Each seal featured detailed depictions of animals carved in intaglio (incised carving where the design is cut into the surface). The animals portrayed included bulls (with and without humps), unicorns, elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses, bison, goats, and antelopes. The realistic representation of animals in various dynamic poses highlighted the extraordinary artistic skill and observational abilities of Harappan craftspeople.​

Pictographic Script: Every seal bore an undeciphered pictographic script carved on it, with writings typically in the Kharosthi style (right to left). Some seals displayed inscriptions on both sides, while others contained mathematical images suggesting educational purposes.​

Purpose and Function: Seals served primarily commercial purposes for identifying merchandise and verifying trade transactions. They also functioned as amulets—possibly serving as ancient identity cards carried by their owners. Copper tablets with animal or human figures and inscriptions, found alongside seals, likely served similar protective and commercial functions.​

Notable Seals:

Pashupati Seal (also called Proto-Shiva Seal or Maha Yogi Seal): This distinctive seal from Mohenjo-daro features a central figure—interpreted by some as a male deity representing early forms of Shiva and by others as a female deity—seated in a cross-legged yogic position. The figure is flanked by an elephant and tiger on the right, a rhinoceros and buffalo on the left, and two antelopes depicted below. 

Unicorn Seal: The most common seal motif, featuring a one-horned creature (often interpreted as a unicorn) depicted in tight profile standing before an altar-like structure. The creature typically bears a colorful blanket or harness shaped like an upside-down heart on its shoulder. Unicorn seals were predominantly made from steatite and represent the civilization’s rich symbolic and totemic animal representations.​

Ritual Seals: Some seals depicted complex mythological scenes, including figures standing in pipal trees with horned headdresses looking down at kneeling worshippers, and processions of seven figures wearing plumed headdresses and long skirts, likely representing ritual sacrifices to deities.​

B. Sculpture of Harappan Civilization

Harappan sculptures, though relatively small in size (the largest being only about 40 cm high), demonstrated remarkable artistic achievement and technical sophistication.​

Bronze Sculpture

The Dancing Girl (c. 2500-2300 BCE): This prehistoric bronze sculpture represents one of the highest achievements of Harappan artistry. Discovered by British archaeologist Ernest Mackay in the “HR area” of Mohenjo-daro in 1926, this masterpiece now resides in the National Museum, New Delhi.​

The statue stands only 10.5 cm tall (4.1 inches) yet creates a powerful visual impact. It depicts a nude young woman or girl with stylized ornaments standing in a confident, naturalistic pose. Her right hand rests on the back of her hip while her left hand hangs by her side, with her weight distributed unevenly in a contrapposto stance.​

Distinctive Features: The figure displays prominent features including large eyes, curly hair plaited on the back and tied in a neat bun, and a flat nose. She wears a necklace and bangles on both arms—remarkably, 24 bangles on one arm and only 4 on the other. Her arms are unnaturally long, a common feature of artifacts from this period. Her head tilts slightly backwards, contributing to her dynamic appearance.​

Manufacturing Technique: The statue was created using the sophisticated lost-wax casting technique (cire perdue), demonstrating advanced metallurgical knowledge. This process involved creating a wax model covered with clay coating with passageways for air. When heated in a furnace, the wax melted out, leaving the clay mold into which molten bronze was poured. After cooling, the clay covering was chipped off and finishing touches were added to the solid bronze statue.​

The bronze alloy used in the Dancing Girl contained tin added to copper (between 8-26%), demonstrating that Indus Valley metalsmiths had mastered the art of creating metal alloys for superior durability and workability.​

Stone Sculpture

The Priest-King (c. 2000-1900 BCE): This small male figure sculpted in steatite (white, low-fired soapstone) represents “the most famous stone sculpture” of the Indus Valley Civilization and is now housed in the National Museum of Pakistan. Found during excavations at Mohenjo-daro in 1925-26, it has become an iconic symbol of Harappan civilization.​

Physical Description: The sculpture stands 17.5 cm tall and 11 cm wide in its current incomplete state, broken off at the bottom and possibly unfinished. It depicts a neatly bearded man with half-closed eyes (suggesting possible yogic meditation), curved ears, thick lips, and hair combed back and parted in the middle.​

Ornamental Details: The figure wears a fillet or headband around his head with a circular ornament at the center, possibly all that remains of an elaborate hairstyle or headdress. He displays a similar circular ornament on his right upper arm. The figure is draped in a cloak over his left shoulder tucked under his (now-broken) right arm. The cloak surface features raised trefoil motifs and circles carved in shallow relief.​

Coloration and Embellishment: Traces of red pigment remain in the garment’s design (possibly made from madder, a natural red colorant extracted from Indian madder plant roots), and a fragment of shell inlay was recovered from one eye, indicating the sculpture was originally colored and embellished with other materials. The incised lines representing the beard extend into the cheek area and were never polished, suggesting the work remained unfinished.​

Interpretation: The name “Priest-King” is now acknowledged as highly speculative and “without foundation.” Alternative interpretations suggest the figure might represent a clan leader, ancestral figure, or foreign dignitary. Some scholars note similarities to Mesopotamian artistic conventions, including garments covering only the left shoulder, suggesting possible trade connections or foreign influence.​

Terracotta Art of Harappan Civilization

Terracotta production in South Asia traces back to Mehrgarh (8th-7th millennium BCE) with crude handmade unbaked clay figurines, transitioning to baked terracotta by the 5th millennium BCE.​

Diversity and Forms: Harappan terracotta demonstrated remarkable diversity, with animal forms outnumbering human figures. Among 283 terracottas in the National Museum collection, only 77 were human forms (including masks), representing less than one-third of the total.​

Male Figurines included masks, horned masks or puppets, double-headed human figurines, male busts, nude male figures, standing males, seated males in yogic postures, and seated human figures with clasped hands in namaskar pose.​

Female Figurines – The Mother Goddess: The typical Harappan female terracotta figurine, known as the ‘Standing Mother Goddess,’ was semi-naked, thin-waisted, and wide-hipped with conical breasts. These figurines wore loincloths and girdles, featured fan-shaped headdresses with pannier-like appendages, and were heavily adorned with jewelry. Other female types included standing females, pregnant animal-headed females, seated women grinding grain, lying mother and child figures, female torsos, and potbelly females suckling babies.​

The Mother Goddess figurine from Mohenjo-daro, dating to circa 2500 BCE and currently displayed in the National Museum, Delhi, measures 22 cm in height, 8.5 cm in width, and 3.4 cm in depth. These terracotta sculptures likely played central roles in household rituals, symbolizing fertility, life cycles, and the feminine principle.​

Manufacturing Technology: Terracotta production began with selecting and cleaning soft, blackish clay that had been underwater for pliability. The clay was kneaded multiple times for pulverization, then degraissants (sand, mica, lime) were added as binding and tempering agents to prevent cracking or warping during baking.​

The prepared clay was shaped through dexterous hand-modeling at the pre-firing stage. Objects were sun-dried and then baked in round domical kilns with perforated floors ensuring uniform heat distribution and oxidation. Subsequently, painting, slip application, and decoration occurred.​

Most Harappan figurines were solid, handmade terracottas, though some hollow figurines and partially wheel-thrown terracottas existed. Hollow figurines were fashioned using the coiling technique, wherein clay was kneaded and coiled spirally to form the body, with hollowness achieved by thumbing out clay from the coiled roll. Moulded terracottas, mostly masks, were made using wooden moulds that have not survived.​

Cultural Context: These terracottas were found primarily in domestic contexts—rubbish pits, yards, drains, streets—suggesting their use as common commodities rather than consecrated ritual objects. The vivid anatomical details and realistic modeling demonstrate the artistic sensibilities and imagination of ancient craftsmen.​

Pottery of Harappan Civilization

Harappan pottery represented the peak of ancient pottery craft, demonstrating sophisticated manufacturing techniques and aesthetic sensibilities.​

Manufacturing Techniques: Indus potters produced plain, colored, and glazed pottery using good quality clay baked in controlled heat. Manufacturing employed three primary techniques: fast wheel-throwing (the most common method), mold-making, and hand-forming. The pottery was fired in round domical kilns with perforated floors for optimal heat circulation.​

Forms and Shapes: Harappan pottery appeared in various functional shapes including bowls, vases, storage jars (for grain and liquid storage), drinking vessels, dishes, perforated jars, goblets, and miniature pottery (possibly toys or votive offerings).​

Red and Black Pottery: The most famous Harappan pottery style featured red backgrounds with glossy black painted designs. This distinctive ware used red slip that provided the background color, upon which designs were painted in lustrous black. The decorative motifs included trees, birds (especially peacocks), animals (bulls, fish, deer), geometric patterns (intersecting circles, scales, horizontal bands), and occasionally human figures.​

Black and Red Ware: Another pottery tradition featured black interiors and red exteriors, achieved through the inverted firing technique. In this sophisticated process, pots were positioned upside-down in the kiln with vegetal material (such as saw dust or organic matter) placed inside them. When fired, the outer surface exposed to oxidizing conditions turned red, while the inner surface subjected to reducing conditions turned black.​

Quality and Craftsmanship: Harappan pottery demonstrated excellent craftsmanship with thin walls, smooth surfaces, and well-proportioned forms. The use of the fast potter’s wheel resulted in symmetrical vessels with uniform thickness. Surface treatments included burnishing for a glossy finish and application of colored slips.​

Beads and Ornaments of Harappan Civilization

The Harappans demonstrated exceptional skill in bead-making and jewelry craftsmanship, with their products reaching far corners of West Asia and Africa through extensive trade networks.​

Beads

Materials: Harappan beads were manufactured from diverse materials including steatite (the most popular—three-quarters of beads found at Mohenjo-daro were steatite), carnelian, agate, onyx, lapis lazuli, shell, gold, copper, faience, and terracotta. Materials were selected based on their beauty and symbolic significance.​

Carnelian Beads: Among the most significant Harappan exports were etched (bleached) carnelian beads, manufactured using a sophisticated alkaline-etching technique developed by Harappan craftspeople. These beads featured white designs etched onto the red-orange carnelian surface.​

Etching Process: The complex manufacturing process involved first shaping and polishing the bead from raw carnelian and piercing its center—a process taking three to eight days. A chemical etching agent was then formulated from an alkaline washing soda solution (sodium carbonate) and plant juice, commonly from Capparis Aphylla bush. This sticky paste was applied to create designs, allowed to dry, and then fired at specific temperatures. The chemical reaction during firing created white patterns by forming a network of microscopic holes that scattered light differently than unmodified carnelian.​

Archaeological Significance: Decorated carnelian beads from Dholavira numbered 41 specimens, predominantly from Stage V (Harappan phase). They featured short lenticular shapes with single, double, and triple eye decorations, and long barrel shapes with complex patterns. These beads were exported to Mesopotamia during the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE and have been found at sites including Ur, Kish, Tell Asmar, Susa, Tepe Yahya (Iran), and even as far as Kolonna (Greece).​

Bead Production Centers: Dholavira’s strategic importance in bead production is substantiated by the presence of over 1,600 drill bits of ‘ernestite’ found at the site, along with its proximity to raw material sources of agate-carnelian.​

Ornaments and Jewelry

Necklaces: The Harappans were fond of wearing necklaces, evidenced by numerous figurines and huge quantities of beads recovered during excavations. Necklaces were made with beads of different materials in various combinations, often featuring discs or long beads as pendants.​

Spacers: Unique to Harappan jewelry were spacers—thin rectangular or cylindrical objects with multiple perforations used to separate and arrange multiple strands of beads. Spacers were made of gold or silver sheet with one or more holes, found at Mohenjo-daro, Mandi, and Kuntasi.​

Bangles: Bangles represented one of the most common ornaments, made from diverse materials including copper, shell, terracotta, faience, and steatite. Copper bangles appeared in both thin and thick varieties. Based on decorative designs, bangles were classified into seventeen types including chevron design (most common), segmented pattern, scattered slanting lines, geometrical patterns, ridge at center, rope design, horizontal oblique grooves, criss-cross, and even bangles with Harappan script inscriptions.​

Shell bangles imitated several copper designs. The Dancing Girl sculpture vividly demonstrates the Harappan fondness for bangles, wearing multiple bangles covering her arms.​

Ear Ornaments: Evidence for ear ornaments is meager but includes circular disc types with knobs at the back, and unusual studs made of faience from Mohenjo-daro. Some figurines depicted wearing ear ornaments, suggesting they were more common than archaeological evidence indicates.​

Other Ornaments: Additional jewelry included armlets (worn on upper arms, as seen on the Priest-King), headbands and fillets (decorative ribbons worn around the head), finger rings, and girdles (waist ornaments).​

Precious Metals: Gold and silver objects included beads, armlets, needles, and various ornaments. Gold was obtained from Himalayan river-beds and South India, while silver came from Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. Notably, silver was more commonly used than gold in Harappan civilization, with large numbers of silver ornaments, dishes, and utensils discovered.​

Metallurgy: Tools and Weapons

The Harappan Civilization was a true Bronze Age civilization that extensively utilized copper and bronze in manufacturing processes.​

Metals Known: Harappans were aware of almost all metals except iron. They manufactured objects from copper, bronze (copper-tin alloy), gold, silver, and lead. Copper was brought mainly from Khetri in Rajasthan.​

Alloy Technology: Indus Valley metalsmiths developed sophisticated alloying techniques. Four main metal varieties have been identified: crude copper lumps from smelting furnaces; refined copper with trace elements of arsenic and antimony; copper alloy with 2-5% arsenic (which created harder, more durable material); and bronze with tin alloy often of 11-13% concentration.​

Archaeological evidence demonstrates that Indus sites used a diverse range of alloys, with functional purpose being the driving factor behind alloy selection rather than following set patterns. Alloy use was not restricted to specific areas or object types.​​

Tools and Implements: Copper and bronze were used to manufacture flat oblong axes, chisels, knives, spears, arrowheads, small saws, razors, fish hooks, needles, and various household items. All these could be made by simple casting, chiseling, and hammering. Notably, weapons produced by Harappans were mostly defensive in nature, with no evidence of offensive weapons like swords.​

Vessels: The copper and bronze vessels of the Harappans ranked among their finest products, formed by hammering sheets of metal. Casting of copper and bronze was well understood, and figurines of men and animals were made by the lost-wax process, which were technically outstanding.​

Production and Trade: Bronze kits used by bronzesmiths for manufacturing have been discovered at numerous sites, suggesting bronze smiths constituted an important part of Indus society. The people of Indus Civilization used both bronze and stone tools across multiple craft areas, and bronze does not appear to have been an elite status symbol. Evidence suggests Harappa engaged in extensive trade to obtain necessary raw materials from larger South Asia and Oman, then traded finished copper and bronze products to Mesopotamia.​​

Town Planning of Harappan Civilization

Harappan town planning reflects remarkable urban organization and engineering skills unprecedented in ancient history, establishing principles that influenced urban design for millennia.​

City Layout and Grid Pattern

Grid System: Harappan cities were meticulously designed on a grid pattern with streets running north-south and east-west, forming rectangular blocks. Streets intersected at nearly right angles, creating a well-organized, rational layout that facilitated efficient movement of people, goods, and carts. This sophisticated urban planning demonstrated advanced knowledge of measurement and geometry.​

Street Design: Main streets were impressively wide—approximately 10 meters (30 feet) in width—and connected by narrower lanes. Houses opened onto these narrow lanes rather than main streets, providing privacy and reducing congestion. Streets were constructed with burned bricks and featured covered drains running alongside them.​

Standardization: The planning showed remarkable consistency, though not all cities achieved perfect grid patterns. Mohenjo-daro did not show an absolutely perfect grid system, and roads were not always straight or intersecting at precise right angles. However, settlements were clearly planned with deliberate intent. Interestingly, the level of planning did not always correlate with settlement size—the relatively small site of Lothal demonstrated much higher planning levels than Kalibangan, which was twice its size.​

Dual Division: Citadel and Lower Town

Harappan cities featured a distinctive two-part division: the Citadel (elevated western section) and the Lower Town (larger eastern section).​

The Citadel: Located on the west side, the citadel was built on a high podium of mud brick and contained important public and administrative buildings. This fortified area housed rulers, religious structures, assembly halls, granaries, and at Mohenjo-daro, the famous Great Bath. The citadel was separated from the lower town by substantial fortification walls.​

The Lower Town: This larger section served as the main residential and commercial area, containing houses for common citizens, marketplaces, and workshops. The lower town was also protected by walls with multiple gateways for controlled entry and exit.​

Architectural Features and Public Buildings

Brick Construction: Harappans used both sun-dried and burnt (kiln-baked) bricks for construction, with the choice depending on location and purpose. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro predominantly used baked bricks, while Kalibangan favored mud bricks. In rocky areas of Kutch and Saurashtra, extensive use of stone occurred.​

Standardized Brick Sizes: A striking feature demonstrating centralized organization was the uniformity in brick dimensions. Bricks followed a standard ratio of 1:2:4 (thickness:width:length), regardless of actual size. Common dimensions included 7 × 14 × 28 cm for house walls and 10 × 20 × 40 cm for city walls. This standardization proved that brick-making was organized on a large scale rather than by individual house owners.​

The fact that house walls at Mohenjo-daro survive up to 5 meters height testifies to the strength of bricks and brick-laying skill. Harappans employed various brick-laying styles, including the ‘English bond style’—bricks laid in alternating sequences of long side (stretcher) and short side (header) in consecutive rows, giving walls maximum load-bearing strength.​

The Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro): Perhaps the most iconic structure, this ingenious hydraulic system denoted the prevalence of ritualistic cleansing. Located in the center of a large open quadrangle surrounded by rooms, the pool measured approximately 12 meters (length) × 7 meters (width) × 2.4 meters (depth). It featured flights of steps at either end, was fed by a nearby well, and dirty water drained through a large corbelled drain into the city’s sewage system. The pool floor was made watertight using gypsum mortar and bitumen.​

Granaries: These strategically designed structures featured air ducts and raised platforms to protect stored grain from moisture and pests. The largest building in Mohenjo-daro was the granary. Harappa had as many as six granaries situated near the citadel or public precincts, functioning as the city’s lifeline by ensuring steady food supply.​

Assembly Halls: Pillared halls with rows of columns (such as the hall with twenty pillars arranged in rows of five at Mohenjo-daro) probably served as courts or secretariats.​

Drainage and Water Management Systems

Sophisticated Drainage: The drainage system was the most remarkable feature of Harappan urban planning. Every house had drains that opened into street drains, which were made of mortar, lime, and gypsum. Street drains were approximately 50 cm below road level with flat brick bases.​

Drains were covered with removable manhole bricks or stone slabs (which could be lifted for cleaning) and were constructed at regular intervals. The main drains along streets were covered by corbelled arches made of brick or stone slabs. These connected into larger drains along main streets, which emptied contents into fields outside city walls.​

Advanced Features: Drains and water chutes from second stories were often built inside walls, with exit openings just above street drains. At Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, terracotta drain pipes directed wastewater into open street drains. Remarkably, these ancient drains remain functional even today, demonstrating extraordinary engineering.​

Water Supply: Cities featured strategically located wells, reservoirs, and water tanks ensuring regular water supply. Many houses had private wells in courtyards, while others relied on public wells located along streets. Wells were circular or rectangular, constructed with standardized bricks, and reached considerable depths to access groundwater.​

Specialized Structures: Lothal Dockyard

Lothal (Gujarat), one of the southernmost Harappan sites built around 2200 BCE, arguably possessed the world’s earliest known dock, connecting the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati River on trade routes between Sindh and the Saurashtra peninsula.​

Dock Engineering: The rectangular dockyard measured approximately 214 meters (east-west) × 37 meters (north-south), with walls of kiln-burnt bricks demonstrating knowledge of tidal movements and their effects on structures. The main inlet was 12.8 meters wide, with another provided on the opposite side. Offsets were provided on outer wall faces to counter water thrust.​

At high tide, flow of 2.1-2.4 meters of water allowed ships to enter. An outlet channel 96.5 meters wide and 1.7 meters high in the southern arm provided escape for excess water. The National Institute of Oceanography discovered marine microfossils (foraminifera), salt, and gypsum crystals at the site, definitively proving sea water once filled the structure.​

Trade Significance: Lothal thrived as a vital trade center, with its trade of beads, gems, and valuable ornaments reaching West Asia and Africa. The discovery of specialized industrial zones, including a bead factory, suggests craft specialization that contributed to economic prosperity.​

Residential Architecture

House Design: Houses were built around central courtyards, featuring multiple rooms with varying sizes for different functions. Many houses had private bathrooms with sophisticated plumbing systems connected to the street drainage network. Rooms were arranged to provide privacy, with no direct view from street to interior.​

Multi-Story Construction: Evidence suggests many houses were multi-story structures. The substantial thickness of ground floor walls, presence of staircases, and discovery of second-story drains built into walls all indicate vertical construction. The survival of walls up to 5 meters height at Mohenjo-daro provides physical evidence of multi-level buildings.​

Public Spaces: Smaller communal plazas or courtyards between houses allowed neighbors to connect, children to play, and families to gather, creating a community-oriented city layout that prioritized collective life. Larger communal spaces near significant structures like granaries and marketplaces enabled residents to gather for trade, social interaction, and administration.​

The art and architecture of the Harappan Civilization reveal a society with advanced technological capabilities, sophisticated aesthetic sensibilities, and remarkable organizational skills. From the intricate etched carnelian beads traded across continents to the meticulously planned urban centers with advanced sanitation systems, the Harappans demonstrated achievements that would not be matched in the Indian subcontinent for nearly two millennia after their decline. Their artistic legacy—embodied in the serene Priest-King, the confident Dancing Girl, enigmatic seals, and beautifully crafted pottery—continues to captivate and inspire, offering profound insights into one of humanity’s earliest urban civilizations.

Summary: Art of the Harappan Civilization

Seals

• Materials: Primarily steatite (soft talc stone); also agate, chert, copper, faience, terracotta, gold, ivory

• Shape & Size: Square plaques (2×2 inches/5×5 cm); button seals also existed

• Artistic Features:

  • Animals carved in intaglio (incised technique)

  • Realistic depictions: bulls, unicorns, elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses, bison, goats

  • Undeciphered pictographic script (Kharosthi style, right to left)

• Purpose: Commercial identification, trade verification, amulets/identity cards

• Notable Examples:

  • Pashupati Seal: Figure in yogic position flanked by animals (elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, antelopes); proto-Shiva symbolism

  • Unicorn Seal: Most common motif; one-horned creature before altar-like structure

Sculpture

Bronze Sculpture

Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro, c. 2500-2300 BCE)

• Size: 10.5 cm tall

• Features:

  • Nude young woman in contrapposto stance

  • Right hand on hip, left hand hanging

  • 24 bangles on one arm, 4 on the other

  • Large eyes, curly hair in bun, flat nose, necklace

  • Unnaturally long arms

• Technique: Lost-wax casting (cire perdue); bronze alloy with 8-26% tin

• Location: National Museum, New Delhi

Stone Sculpture

Priest-King (Mohenjo-daro, c. 2000-1900 BCE)

• Size: 17.5 cm tall, 11 cm wide

• Material: Steatite (white soapstone)

• Features:

  • Bearded man with half-closed eyes (meditation pose)

  • Fillet/headband with circular ornament at center

  • Cloak over left shoulder with trefoil motifs and circles in relief

  • Traces of red pigment on garment

  • Shell inlay in eye socket

• Interpretation: Possibly clan leader, ancestral figure, or foreign dignitary (not necessarily priest or king)

• Location: National Museum of Pakistan

Terracotta

• Timeline: Mehrgarh (8th-7th millennium BCE) – crude unbaked; 5th millennium BCE – baked terracotta

• Diversity: Animal forms outnumbered human figures (77 human forms out of 283 total terracottas)

Male Figurines

• Masks, horned masks/puppets, double-headed figures

• Nude males, standing males, seated males in yogic postures

• Namaskar pose figures

Female Figurines – Mother Goddess

• Typical Form: Semi-naked, thin-waisted, wide-hipped, conical breasts

• Attire: Loincloths, girdles, fan-shaped headdresses, heavy jewelry

• Variations: Pregnant females, grinding grain, mother-child figures, suckling babies

• Famous Example: Mother Goddess from Mohenjo-daro (22 cm height, National Museum Delhi)

Manufacturing Process

• Soft blackish clay with degraissants (sand, mica, lime)

• Hand-modeling; some coiling technique for hollow figures

• Sun-dried then baked in round domical kilns with perforated floors

• Solid and handmade (mostly); some hollow and wheel-thrown

• Found in domestic contexts (rubbish pits, yards, drains, streets)

Pottery

Manufacturing Techniques

• Fast wheel-throwing (most common)

• Mold-making and hand-forming

• Fired in round domical kilns with perforated floors

• Good quality clay with controlled heat

Forms: Bowls, vases, storage jars, drinking vessels, dishes, perforated jars, goblets, miniature pottery

Styles

Red and Black Pottery

• Red backgrounds with glossy black painted designs

• Motifs: trees, birds (peacocks), animals (bulls, fish, deer), geometric patterns

Black and Red Ware

• Black interiors, red exteriors

• Inverted firing technique with vegetal material inside

• Oxidizing conditions (red exterior), reducing conditions (black interior)

Quality: Thin walls, smooth surfaces, well-proportioned, symmetrical, burnished finish

Beads and Ornaments

Beads

Materials

• Most Popular: Steatite (3/4 of beads at Mohenjo-daro)

• Others: Carnelian, agate, onyx, lapis lazuli, shell, gold, copper, faience, terracotta

Etched Carnelian Beads (Major Export)

• White designs on red-orange carnelian

• Process: Shape → polish → pierce (3-8 days) → apply alkaline paste (sodium carbonate + plant juice) → fire → white patterns form

• Exported to Mesopotamia, found in Ur, Kish, Tell Asmar, Susa, Iran, Greece

• Production Centers: Dholavira (1,600+ drill bits found)

Ornaments

Necklaces

• Multiple materials in combinations

• Discs or long beads as pendants

Spacers (Unique to Harappan)

• Thin rectangular/cylindrical objects with multiple perforations

• Separate multiple strands of beads

• Gold or silver sheet

Bangles

• Materials: Copper, shell, terracotta, faience, steatite

• 17 types based on designs: chevron (most common), segmented, geometrical, ridge, rope, criss-cross

• Some with Harappan script inscriptions

• Dancing Girl wore multiple bangles covering arms

Other Ornaments

• Ear ornaments: Circular discs with knobs, faience studs

• Armlets (upper arms – seen on Priest-King)

• Headbands/fillets

• Finger rings

• Girdles (waist ornaments)

Precious Metals: Silver used more commonly than gold

Metallurgy: Tools and Weapons

Metals Known: Copper, bronze (copper-tin alloy), gold, silver, lead (all except iron)

Alloy Technology

• Crude copper lumps

• Refined copper with arsenic and antimony traces

• Copper-arsenic alloy (2-5%)

• Bronze with 11-13% tin concentration

• Diverse alloys based on functional purpose

Tools and Implements

• Flat oblong axes, chisels, knives, spears, arrowheads

• Small saws, razors, fish hooks, needles

• Mostly defensive weapons (no swords)

Techniques: Simple casting, chiseling, hammering, lost-wax process, metal sheet hammering

Trade: Obtained raw materials from South Asia and Oman; traded finished products to Mesopotamia

Town Planning

City Layout

Grid Pattern

• Streets running north-south and east-west

• Rectangular blocks with right-angle intersections

• Main streets: ~10 meters wide

• Narrow lanes: Houses opened onto these (not main streets)

• Burned brick construction with covered drains

Dual Division

Architectural Features

Brick Construction

• Sun-dried and burnt (kiln-baked) bricks

• Standard Ratio: 1:2:4 (thickness:width:length)

• House walls: 7 × 14 × 28 cm

• City walls: 10 × 20 × 40 cm

• Walls survived up to 5 meters height

• English bond style brick-laying

Major Structures

Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro)

• Dimensions: 12m (L) × 7m (W) × 2.4m (D)

• Steps at both ends

• Fed by nearby well

• Corbelled drain system

• Watertight floor (gypsum mortar and bitumen)

Granaries

• Air ducts and raised platforms (moisture protection)

• Six granaries at Harappa near citadel

• Largest building at Mohenjo-daro

Assembly Halls

• Pillared halls with column rows

• Example: Hall with 20 pillars in 5 rows (Mohenjo-daro)

Drainage and Water Management

Drainage System

• Every house connected to street drains

• Materials: Mortar, lime, gypsum

• Depth: ~50 cm below road level

• Covered with removable manhole bricks/stone slabs

• Corbelled arches along main streets

• Terracotta drain pipes

• Second-story drains built inside walls

• Still functional today

Water Supply

• Private wells in house courtyards

• Public wells along streets

• Circular or rectangular construction

• Strategically located reservoirs and tanks

Specialized Structures

Lothal Dockyard (World’s Earliest Known Dock, c. 2200 BCE)

• Dimensions: 214m (E-W) × 37m (N-S)

• Main inlet: 12.8m wide

• Kiln-burnt brick walls

• High tide water flow: 2.1-2.4 meters

• Outlet channel: 96.5m wide × 1.7m high

• Evidence: Marine microfossils, salt, gypsum crystals

• Trade: Beads, gems, ornaments to West Asia and Africa

Residential Architecture

House Design

• Central courtyard layout

• Multiple rooms (varying sizes)

• Private bathrooms with plumbing

• Multi-story construction (evidence: thick walls, staircases, wall drains)

• No direct street-to-interior view (privacy)

Public Spaces

• Small communal plazas/courtyards between houses

• Larger spaces near granaries and marketplaces

• Community-oriented layout

Art and Culture