India After Independence: 1947 to 1951

History of India After Independence: 1947 to 1951

Overview

The period from 1947 to 1951 represents the formative years of independent India, characterized by tremendous political challenges, constitutional nation-building, and the consolidation of diverse princely states into the Indian Union. This era witnessed the transformation of India from a British dominion to a sovereign democratic republic, with the adoption of the Constitution of India marking the culmination of this momentous journey.

Part I: The Independence and Initial Political Framework (August 15, 1947)

Independence and Dominion Status

India achieved independence on August 15, 1947, marking the end of nearly two centuries of British colonial rule. The Indian Independence Act of 1947, passed on July 18, 1947, established India as a Dominion within the British Commonwealth. As per this act, India retained the British monarch (King George VI) as its constitutional head of state, with a Governor-General serving as the representative of the Crown in India.

Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, became the first Governor-General of independent India (August 15, 1947 – June 21, 1948). He accepted the Instrument of Accession from various princely states on behalf of the Dominion of India and played a crucial role in mediating the princely states’ integration with the Union.

Partition and Its Consequences

The Mountbatten Plan of June 3, 1947 (also known as the 3 June Plan), outlined the partition of British India into two independent nations—India and Pakistan. The main provisions of this plan included:

• Partition of Provinces: Punjab and Bengal were to be partitioned along religious lines following votes in their provincial legislative assemblies

• Boundary Commission: Sir Cyril Radcliffe chaired the boundary commission tasked with demarcating the borders between India and Pakistan

• Princely States: These territories were given the option to accede to either India or Pakistan

• Timeline: The transfer of power was advanced to August 15, 1947

The partition resulted in massive communal violence, displacement of millions, and the death of hundreds of thousands. The Indian Independence Act terminated British suzerainty over princely states, compelling their rulers to choose between joining India or Pakistan by August 15, 1947.

Interim Government and Dominion Legislature

Following independence, the Constituent Assembly assumed dual roles:

1. Drafting the Constitution of independent India

2. Functioning as the Provisional Parliament (Dominion Legislature) of India until the Constitution came into effect

This interim arrangement continued until January 26, 1950, when the Constitution of India was formally adopted, replacing the Government of India Act of 1935.

Part II: Constitution-Making (1946–1950)

Formation and Composition of the Constituent Assembly

The Constituent Assembly of India was formed in November 1946 under the Cabinet Mission Plan. It consisted of:

• 292 representatives from British Indian provinces (elected by provincial legislatures)

• 93 representatives from princely states (nominated by rulers)

• 4 representatives from chief commissioner provinces (Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg, and British Baluchistan)

Total membership: 389 representatives, reduced to 299 after Partition as representatives from areas that became Pakistan ceased to be members.

The Assembly was first convened on December 9, 1946, and after independence, it reassembled as a sovereign body on December 31, 1947. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the President of the Constituent Assembly unanimously.

The Drafting Committee

On August 29, 1947, the Constituent Assembly appointed a seven-member Drafting Committee chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the principal architect of the Indian Constitution. Other notable members included:

• B.N. Rau (Constitutional Advisor)

• S.N. Mukherjee (Chief Draftsman)

• K.M. Munshi

• Ayyar (legal scholar)

B.N. Rau prepared an initial draft constitution in February 1948, consisting of 243 articles and 13 schedules, which was submitted to the Drafting Committee for refinement.

Constitution-Making Process

The Drafting Committee prepared its first revised draft and submitted it to the Constituent Assembly on November 4, 1948. In his presentation speech on this date, Dr. Ambedkar introduced a document containing 315 Articles and 8 Schedules, which he characterized as a “formidable” document that would form the basis of India’s constitutional architecture.

The Constituent Assembly then began the most intensive phase of deliberations, covering 114 out of 165 sittings, during which members debated the constitutional provisions extensively.

Constitutional Amendments and Adoption

During the deliberation phase (November 1948 – November 1949):

• 7,635 amendments were proposed by various members

• 2,473 amendments were ultimately adopted

• The Assembly held 11 sessions spread over 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days

The final Constitution, after debates and amendments, grew to 395 Articles and 8 Schedules.

On November 26, 1949, the Constituent Assembly officially adopted the Constitution of India by a vote of the members. This date is celebrated as Constitution Day. The Constitution was signed by 284 members of the Assembly.

Transition from Dominion to Republic

The Constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950, transforming India from a Dominion under British sovereignty to a fully sovereign democratic republic. Dr. Rajendra Prasad assumed office as the first President of India, replacing the Governor-General as the constitutional head of state.

This date was deliberately chosen to commemorate the “Purna Swaraj” (Complete Independence) resolution passed by the Indian National Congress on January 26, 1930—exactly twenty years earlier—rejecting the dominion status offered by the British and demanding complete independence.

Part III: Integration of Princely States (1947–1950)

The Accession Framework

The integration of princely states was one of the most significant achievements of independent India. The Indian Independence Act of 1947 terminated British suzerainty over the approximately 565 princely states, giving them three options:

1. Accede to India

2. Accede to Pakistan

3. Remain independent

The Instrument of Accession served as the legal mechanism through which princes could join the Indian Union. This document, formulated in accordance with the Government of India Act of 1935, allowed rulers to accede to the Dominion of India on three subjects:

• Defence

• External Affairs (Foreign Relations)

• Communications

Rulers who acceded to India received guarantees of:

• Privy Purses: Annual payments to compensate for loss of power and territory

• Autonomy: Retention of internal administration and governance

• Extraterritorial rights: Preservation of personal prerogatives and status

Architects of Integration: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister, spearheaded the integration process with remarkable administrative acumen. Working closely with V.P. Menon, Secretary in the Ministry of States, Patel employed a combination of diplomacy, patriotic appeal, and calculated pressure to persuade princes to accede.

Patel’s strategy emphasized that:

• National integration was essential for India’s security and prosperity

• Without integration, princely states would economically collapse and descend into anarchy

• Many small states lacked resources to sustain themselves as independent entities

• Accession would provide rulers with status, recognition, and income through privy purses

Patel appealed to rulers’ sense of patriotism and self-interest simultaneously, making accession an attractive proposition.

Merger Process: Voluntary Accessions

By August 15, 1947, the majority of rulers had voluntarily signed the Instrument of Accession. The first major states to accede included:

• Bikaner (April 28, 1947)

• Baroda

• Patiala

• Gwalior

• And many states in Rajasthan

By the end of 1947, approximately 500 of the 565 princely states had voluntarily acceded to India. However, several complex cases required direct intervention.

Case Study 1: Kashmir

The Status of Kashmir: Kashmir was a princely state with a Muslim-majority population (approximately 77%) but ruled by a Hindu Maharaja, Hari Singh. Pakistan had significant strategic and religious reasons for seeking Kashmir’s accession, while India sought to maintain territorial integrity and demonstrate that a multi-religious nation could include Muslim-majority areas.

The Accession Crisis (October 1947):

• Initially, Maharaja Hari Singh sought to maintain independence and signed a standstill agreement with both India and Pakistan (July 1947) to preserve existing administrative arrangements

• In October 1947, tribal militias from Pakistan invaded Kashmir, forcing the Maharaja’s hand

• Facing an invasion and lacking military resources, Maharaja Hari Singh appealed to India for military assistance

The Instrument of Accession:

• On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession acceding Kashmir to India

• On October 27, 1947, Lord Mountbatten formally accepted the accession on behalf of the Indian Dominion

• Mountbatten’s letter of acceptance included a significant condition: “It is my Government’s wish that as soon as law and order have been restored in Kashmir and her soil cleared of the invader, the question of the State’s accession should be settled by a reference to the people”

Significance: While India maintained that the accession was complete and unconditional, the reference to a future referendum created a basis for international involvement and the eventual United Nations mediation that continues to this day.

Accession Day is celebrated annually on October 26 in Kashmir to commemorate this pivotal event.

Case Study 2: Junagadh

Political Context: Junagadh was a small princely state located in Gujarat (Saurashtra region) with a Muslim ruling family but an 80% Hindu population. Its geographic location was entirely within Indian territory, accessible to the sea but completely surrounded by Indian land borders.

The Accession Dispute:

• On August 15, 1947, Nawab Mahabat Khan III, influenced by his Dewan (Prime Minister) Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto (father of future Pakistani PM Zulfikar Ali Bhutto), unexpectedly announced Junagadh’s accession to Pakistan

• Pakistan formally accepted this accession on September 13, 1947, creating a serious constitutional crisis

Indian Response:

• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Patel rejected the accession as geographically and politically untenable

• India’s position was that Junagadh’s accession to Pakistan was impossible given its geographic isolation from Pakistan by hundreds of kilometers of Indian territory

• Patel implemented an economic blockade, cutting off supplies of fuel, coal, salt, medicines, and other essentials to Junagadh

• India severed air and postal links and sent troops to frontier regions

• Through diplomatic negotiation with the Dewan, India demonstrated the unsustainability of the Nawab’s position

Resolution through Democratic Means:

• On November 7, 1947, facing administrative collapse and clashes with Indian forces, the Nawab fled to Pakistan

• The Dewan invited the Indian government to assume control of the state’s administration

• India organized a plebiscite (referendum) under official supervision on February 20, 1948

• Results were overwhelmingly decisive:

  • 199,563 votes in favor of accession to India (99.5%)

  • 91 votes in favor of Pakistan (0.05%)

  • Out of approximately 201,000 votes cast, turnout was approximately 95%

Integration into India:

• Junagadh was formally integrated into India in March 1948

• It became part of Saurashtra State (comprising multiple merged principalities)

• Later, Saurashtra was merged into Bombay State in 1956

• Following linguistic reorganization in 1960, Junagadh became part of Gujarat

Significance: The Junagadh case demonstrated that India’s approach to integration was grounded in democratic principles and the will of the people, contrasting sharply with its later military approach in Hyderabad.

Case Study 3: Hyderabad

Political Context: Hyderabad was the largest, wealthiest, and most powerful princely state, ruled by the Nizam (Mir Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII), a Muslim whose dominion had a predominantly Hindu population. The state was experiencing significant internal instability due to the Telangana Rebellion and Razakar militia violence.

Internal Instability:

Telangana Rebellion (1946-1948): The communist-led peasant uprising in Telangana (the Telangana region of Hyderabad) began in 1946, demanding land rights and an end to feudal exploitation. By 1948, communists controlled approximately 16,000 square miles covering 4,000 villages, establishing parallel administrations through commune systems (gram rajyams).

Razakars: The Nizam’s government countered the communist rebellion by empowering the Razakars, a Muslim militia led by Qasim Razvi, which by August 1948 numbered approximately 100,000 men. The Razakars:

• Engaged in widespread communal violence against Hindus

• Murdered, raped, and kidnapped Hindu civilians

• Looted and pillaged villages

• Between 30,000 and 40,000 people were killed during this period (with some estimates reaching 200,000)

• More than 400,000 Hindu refugees fled to neighboring territories

Nizam’s Independence Stance:

• The Nizam refused to accede to India, hoping to maintain independence

• On November 6, 1947, Hyderabad signed a standstill agreement with India, intended to preserve existing arrangements

• However, during the standstill period, India employed de-stabilization tactics:

  • Economic blockade of essential goods (rice, salt, medicines, petroleum, chlorine)

  • Border raids and attacks on police outposts

  • Disruption of railway communications

  • Destruction of customs outposts and government buildings

Operation Polo – The Police Action:

• On September 7, 1948, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru issued an ultimatum to the Nizam, demanding the ban of Razakars and restoration of Indian troops to Secunderabad

• On September 13, 1948, India launched a military invasion (euphemistically termed a “police action” by Sardar Patel)

• The operation was completed in just four days (September 13-17)

• The Nizam’s forces surrendered on September 17, 1948

• The Nizam subsequently signed the Instrument of Accession, formally joining India

Administrative Integration:

• After integration, Hyderabad underwent significant administrative reorganization

• The Indian government appointed junior officers from neighboring states to replace Hyderabadi officials, creating bureaucratic challenges

• Special Tribunals were established to prosecute persons involved in communal violence

• By 1953, most detainees had been released, reflecting the government’s desire to move forward rather than exact retribution

• Hyderabad eventually formed the basis of the modern Telangana state following the 2014 bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh

Significance: The Hyderabad integration demonstrated that while India preferred voluntary accession through negotiation, it was prepared to use military force when necessary to maintain territorial integrity and prevent the emergence of hostile independent states within Indian territory.

Case Study 4: Manavadar and Other Small States

Junagadh’s Principalities: During the Junagadh integration process, the small principalities of:

• Mangrol (Sheikh-ruled territory)

• Babariawad (princely territory)

Initially resisted Junagadh’s accession to Pakistan. Mangrol briefly claimed independence before eventually acceding to India. Manavadar faced a similar situation and eventually joined India through the plebiscite process.

Overall Results of Integration

By January 26, 1950, when the Constitution came into effect, the integration of princely states was substantially complete:

• 554 princely states existed at independence

• 216 states were merged into neighboring provinces

• 310 states were consolidated into 6 unions of states:

  • Rajasthan Union

  • Saurashtra State

  • Kutch State

  • Himachal Pradesh

  • Tripura

  • Manipur

• 5 states were directly placed under chief commissioners’ administration

• 21 Punjab hill states formed Himachal Pradesh

• 2 states were separated as individual provinces

• Total of 14 unions of states were created

By the time the Constitution took effect, princely state militaries had been integrated into the Indian Army, administrative structures had been reorganized, and the subcontinent had been transformed from a patchwork of British territories and princely states into a unified nation.

This integration was hailed as one of Sardar Patel’s greatest achievements, often referred to as his “unification of India”—a feat of statesmanship that complemented Jawaharlal Nehru’s role in framing the Constitution and establishing democratic institutions.

Part IV: Economic Policy and Development (1947–1950)

Colonial Economic Legacy

At independence, India inherited an economically devastated nation:

Economic Conditions (1950-51):

• Average income per capita: Rs. 240 annually

• Literacy rate: Below 17%

• High birth and death rates indicating poor healthcare and nutrition

• 75% of population engaged in agriculture, yet India was not self-sufficient in food grain production

• Industrial activity was minimal, concentrated in major cities like Calcutta and Bombay

• Infrastructure severely lacking in banking, insurance, transport, communications, and power generation

• Widespread poverty perpetuating cycles of low income, limited savings, and insufficient investment

Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948

Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru presented the Industrial Policy Resolution on April 6, 1948, establishing the framework for India’s economic development. This policy reflected Nehru’s vision of a mixed economy combining state intervention with private enterprise, inspired by socialist ideals while maintaining democratic governance.

Key Features:

Four Categories of Industries:

1. Category I – Strategic Industries (Government Monopoly):

   • Arms and ammunition

   • Atomic energy

   • Railway transport

   • These industries were reserved exclusively for state control due to their strategic importance and national security implications

2. Category II – Basic Industries (Mixed Sector):

   • Coal, iron and steel

   • Aircraft manufacturing

   • Shipbuilding

   • Telecommunications

   • Petroleum refining

   • The state would play the dominant role, but private enterprise could participate under government regulation

   • Objective: Ensure sufficient investment and production capacity with close government monitoring

3. Category III – Key Industries (Primarily Private Sector):

   • Textiles, chemicals, food processing

   • Primarily left to private enterprise with government oversight

   • Government retained the right to intervene if required

   • Objective: Encourage private initiative, investment, and expansion while maintaining government oversight

4. Category IV – Consumer Goods Industries (Private Sector with Limited Control):

   • Shoes, garments, household goods

   • Minimal government intervention

   • Objective: Ensure steady supply of consumer goods and create employment opportunities

Principles Underlying the Policy:

• Self-Reliance and Import Substitution: Reduce dependence on imports, promote indigenous industries, and build a self-sufficient economy

• Balanced Regional Development: Discourage industrial activity concentration in developed areas; encourage development in underdeveloped regions

• Employment and Productivity: Increase industrial productivity and create jobs to tackle poverty

• Social Justice and Welfare State: Balance economic growth with social justice, creating fair opportunities for all

• Foundation for Planning: Laid groundwork for coordinated, systematic economic development

Significance: The 1948 Industrial Policy established the philosophical and structural foundation for India’s development model for the next four decades, emphasizing:

• State control of strategic sectors

• Mixed economy framework

• Long-term planning and investment

• Balance between equity and growth

Planning Commission (1950)

On March 15, 1950, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru established the Planning Commission as an executive body to formulate systematic development plans for India. The Planning Commission was structured with:

• Prime Minister as the Chairman

• Gulzarilal Nanda as the first Vice-Chairman (appointed March 1950)

• Various expert members representing different sectors of the economy

Functions of the Planning Commission:

• Assess all resources of the country (physical and human)

• Formulate plans for their most effective and balanced utilization

• Formulate development programs and strategies

• Monitor implementation of plans

• Suggest policy modifications as required

The Planning Commission drew inspiration from the Soviet Union’s Five-Year Plans model developed by Joseph Stalin, adapting it to India’s democratic context and mixed economy.

First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956):

• Launched in April 1951 (after the first general elections)

• Based on the Harrod-Domar model with modifications suited to Indian conditions

• Total planned budget: ₹2,069 crore (later revised to ₹2,378 crore)

Allocation of Resources:

• Irrigation and energy: 27.2%

• Agriculture and community development: 17.4%

• Transport and communications: 24%

• Industry: 8.6%

• Social services: 16.6%

• Rehabilitation of landless farmers: 4.1%

• Other sectors and services: 2.5%

Objectives of the First Plan:

• Solve problems created by partition and World War II

• Rebuild the nation after independence

• Lay foundation for industrial and agricultural development

• Provide affordable healthcare and education

• Develop agriculture as the primary sector

Land Reforms and Zamindari Abolition

While the Constitutional framework was being established, various states initiated Zamindari Abolition Acts to reform the feudal agrarian structure inherited from the British period.

Zamindari System: Under British rule, the Zamindari system created an intermediary class of landlords (zamindars) who collected taxes on behalf of the Crown but exploited peasants extensively.

Zamindari Abolition and Land Reform Act of 1950 (Uttar Pradesh exemplifying state-level reforms):

Key Provisions:

• Abolished all rights of zamindars and jagirdars (intermediate feudal lords)

• Transferred land ownership directly to cultivators and tenants

• Provided compensation to landlords (approximately 8 times the value of net assets, though varying by state)

• Abolished illegal exactions in cash, kind, and services from peasants

• Created land records and conducted surveys for proper demarcation of holdings

• Transferred common resources (wasteland, grazing land, ponds, forests) to village panchayats or forest departments

Implementation and Impact:

• Vesting of land under new ownership began on July 1, 1952 in most states

• Freed the peasantry from feudal exploitation

• Changed rural power structures

• However, implementation faced challenges:

  • Strained state finances due to compensation payments

  • Former landlords often retained control through various means

  • Rise of absentee landlord class

  • Not uniformly implemented across states due to federal structure

Part V: First General Elections (October 1951 – February 1952)

The Electoral Challenge

The first general elections of independent India represented an unprecedented democratic exercise. The scale was extraordinary:

• 1/6th of the world’s population participated

• The electorate comprised approximately 173 million registered voters

• Overall turnout: 44.87% (remarkably high for a first election)

Electoral Framework

Election Timeline: October 25, 1951 – February 21, 1952
Election Commission: Established in 1949; Sukumar Sen appointed as the first Chief Election Commissioner in March 1950
Representation of the People Act: Passed in March 1950, establishing rules for conducting elections

Lok Sabha Structure:

• 489 elected seats to be filled

• 401 constituencies across 25 states

• 314 single-member constituencies using first-past-the-post system

• 86 multi-member constituencies with reserved seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

• 1 constituency electing three representatives

• 10 nominated members (Anglo-Indians) appointed by the President

• Total strength: 499 seats

Electoral Competition

Political Parties Contesting:

• Approximately 53 political parties (with 14 national parties)

• 1,874 candidates competing for Lok Sabha seats

Major Political Parties:

1. Indian National Congress – dominant party with organizational strength across the nation

2. Communist Party of India – significant presence, especially in certain regions

3. Socialist Party

4. Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party – agrarian-focused party

5. Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha – communal party

6. Bharatiya Jana Sangh – nationalist conservative party

7. Various regional parties and independent candidates

Election Results

Election Outcome and Significance

Decisive Congress Victory: The Indian National Congress won a thumping majority with 364 of 489 elected seats, securing a clear mandate to govern. The Congress victory reflected:

• Its historical role in the independence struggle

• Its secular, inclusive vision for the Indian nation

• Its organizational presence across diverse regions and communities

Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru became India’s first democratically elected Prime Minister, sworn in by Governor-General C. Rajagopalachari (Mountbatten’s successor, who assumed office on June 21, 1948).

Communist Emergence: The Communist Party of India, with 16 seats, emerged as the primary opposition, reflecting growing support for communist ideology in certain regions, particularly among intelligentsia and workers.

Democratic Milestone: These elections proved that universal adult suffrage could work in a large, diverse, multilingual, multi-religious nation with low literacy rates—a remarkable validation of democratic principles.

Presidential Election (May 2, 1952)

Concurrent with the general elections, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the first President of the Indian Republic through the Electoral College. He obtained approximately 670,000 votes, defeating his nearest rival K.T. Shah who received 92,827 votes.

Part VI: Constitutional Transition and Republic Status (January 26, 1950)

From Dominion to Republic

January 26, 1950 marked a watershed moment in Indian history. On this date:

• The Constitution of India came into full effect, replacing the Government of India Act of 1935

• India transitioned from a Dominion under the British Crown to a sovereign, democratic republic

• The Dominion Legislature was transformed into the Parliament of India

• The Constituent Assembly dissolved as a constituent body and continued as the Provisional Parliament until first-elected members took office

Symbolic Significance of January 26

The date January 26 carried profound historical significance for Indian nationalism:

• On January 26, 1930, exactly twenty years earlier, the Indian National Congress had proclaimed the “Purna Swaraj” (Complete Independence) resolution at its annual session, rejecting the dominion status offered by the British and demanding full sovereignty

• The choice of this identical date for implementing the Constitution symbolized the fulfillment of that twenty-year-old vision

• It marked the replacement of colonial subjugation with democratic self-governance

Institutional Changes

Presidency:

• Replaced the Governor-General (representative of the British Crown) with a President as the ceremonial head of state

• Dr. Rajendra Prasad assumed office as the first President of India

• The President represented the Indian people and the republic, not foreign sovereignty

Republicanism:

• Severed the ceremonial link with the British monarchy

• Affirmed India’s complete independence and self-determination

• Established India as the world’s largest republic and democratic nation

Parliamentary Continuity:

• Maintained the parliamentary democratic system established in the Constitution

• Preserved the dual legislative structure of Lok Sabha (lower house) and Rajya Sabha (upper house)

• Ensured political continuity through the first elections (October 1951 – February 1952)

Part VII: Key Political Events and Personalities (1947-1951)

The Triumvirate of Nation-Building

Jawaharlal Nehru (Prime Minister): Articulated the vision of a secular, socialist-oriented, democratic republic. As Prime Minister and Chairman of the Planning Commission, he shaped economic policy, emphasized scientific temper and modernization, and provided intellectual leadership.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister): Orchestrated the integration of princely states through a combination of diplomacy and firm resolve. His administrative acumen and decisive action unified the fragmented Indian subcontinent.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (Law Minister and Chairman, Drafting Committee): Authored the Constitution with a vision of social democracy, emphasizing abolition of untouchability, gender equality, and protection of minorities. Though he later resigned as Law Minister in frustration over the Hindu Code Bill’s rejection, his constitutional framework remains his enduring legacy.

Other Notable Figures

• Dr. Rajendra Prasad: First President of India, respected elder statesman

• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: Minister of Education, advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity

• Vallabhbhai Patel: States Minister, key architect of administrative integration

• C. Rajagopalachari: Chief Minister of Madras, later Governor-General (June 1948 – September 1950)

• Sheikh Abdullah: Allied with Nehru, popular Kashmiri leader

• K.M. Munshi: Constitutional expert, contributor to constitutional debates

• H.V. Kamath: Socialist voice in the Constituent Assembly

Challenges and Controversies

Hindu Code Bill: Ambedkar’s proposed comprehensive reform of Hindu personal law was rejected by conservative members of the Assembly and rejected by Parliament after independence, leading to his resignation as Law Minister in September 1951 in protest.

Linguistic Organization of States: The demand for linguistic reorganization of states created tensions between central authority and regional aspirations, though this was deferred beyond 1950.

Communal Violence: The partition’s aftermath continued to fuel communal tensions, with violence in Hyderabad and other regions complicating the integration process.

Religious and Personal Law: The decision to retain personal laws of different communities rather than impose a uniform civil code represented a compromise between Ambedkar’s universalist vision and pluralistic reality.

Summary and Significance

The period from 1947 to 1951 represents India’s transformation from a colonial possession into a sovereign democratic republic. Key achievements included:

1. Constitution-Making: Drafting and adoption of a remarkably comprehensive constitution embodying democratic principles, social justice, and federal governance

2. Integration of Princely States: Consolidating 565 princely states into the Indian Union through negotiation, incentives, and when necessary, military action

3. Economic Framework: Establishing a mixed economy with the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 and the Planning Commission in 1950

4. Democratic Transition: Implementing universal adult suffrage through the first general elections, proving democracy viable in a large, diverse, poor nation

5. Institutional Building: Creating functional institutions for governance, including a permanent parliament, election commission, and bureaucratic structures

6. Social Justice: Constitutionally abolishing untouchability and establishing principles of equality and social welfare

These five years witnessed India’s emergence as a modern nation-state, establishing the foundations for decades of democratic governance, economic development, and social transformation. The vision articulated during this period—of secular democracy, planned development, and social justice—would define India’s trajectory throughout the post-independence era.

The period concluded with India positioning itself as the world’s largest democracy, with a constitution rivaling any for its comprehensiveness and idealism, and with the institutional and political frameworks in place for decades of democratic governance ahead.

Post-Independent India