NORTH AMERICA

NORTH AMERICA: 

INTRODUCTION AND LOCATION

North America is the third-largest continent in the world, after Asia and Africa, covering an area of approximately 24.7 million square kilometers (including Greenland and Caribbean islands). It is a continent entirely situated within the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere.

Latitude: 7°N to 84°N (approximately 7°N to 83°38’N)

Longitude: 20°W to 179°W (approximately 12°08’W to 172°30’W)

Boundaries:

• North: Arctic Ocean

• East: Atlantic Ocean

• West: Pacific Ocean

• South: Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Central America (bordering South America)

• Northwest: Separated from Asia (Siberia) by the Bering Strait (~85 km)

• Southeast: Connected to South America by the Isthmus of Panama

Physical Size: The continent extends approximately 3,000 km from east to west and over 7,000 km from north to south, making it the third-largest continent after Asia and Africa.

Time Zones: North America spans five time zones, reflecting its vast east-west expanse.

Key Geographic Lines:

• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the continent (entering through Mexico)

• The Arctic Circle passes through northern Canada and Alaska

• The 49°N parallel forms the boundary between Canada and the United States

• The 100°W longitude divides the continent into two roughly equal parts

Political Status: North America comprises 23 countries (though often referred to by its three largest: Canada, United States, and Mexico), multiple territories, and numerous Caribbean island nations.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS

Three Major Countries

1. Canada

• Status: Second-largest country in the world by land area

• Capital: Ottawa

• Type of Government: Parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy

• Population: Approximately 40 million

• Key Features: Bilingual nation (English and French), highly urbanized with vast wilderness areas

2. United States of America (USA)

• Status: Third-largest country by land area; world’s leading economic and military power

• Capital: Washington, D.C.

• Type of Government: Federal republic

• Composition: 50 states, a federal district (Washington, D.C.), and overseas territories

• Population: Approximately 330 million

3. Mexico

• Status: Largest Spanish-speaking country in the world

• Capital: Mexico City

• Type of Government: Federal republic

• Population: Approximately 125 million

• Key Features: Rich indigenous heritage, ancient civilizations (Aztec, Maya)

Central American Countries (7) 

Situated between Mexico and Colombia (South America):

• Belize

• Costa Rica

• El Salvador

• Guatemala

• Honduras

• Nicaragua

• Panama

Caribbean Islands and Territories

Major Island Groups:

• Greater Antilles: Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic), Jamaica, Puerto Rico

• Lesser Antilles: Chain of islands extending from Virgin Islands to Trinidad and Tobago

• Notable Countries: Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines

Other Important Territories

• Greenland: Autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark; world’s largest island

• Alaska: Part of USA, located in northwestern North America

• Aleutian Islands: Extension of the Rockies, part of USA

PHYSICAL FEATURES

Major Mountain Systems

1. The Western Cordilleras

The western mountain system is geologically young and tectonically active, comprising several distinct ranges:

a) Alaska and Aleutian Ranges

• Located in northern Alaska

• Extend in an east-west direction

• Continuation of the Rockies

• Mount McKinley (Denali): 6,194 m – highest peak in North America

• Terminate in the Aleutian Islands (part of Pacific Mountain Systems)

b) Cascade Range

• Located east of the Coast Mountains

• Extends from northern California to Washington

• Mount Whitney (4,418 m): highest peak in the continental USA

• Characterized by volcanic peaks

c) Sierra Nevada

• Located south of the Cascade Range to southern California

• Runs along the Pacific coast

• Contains Mount Whitney in its southern section

d) Rocky Mountains

• North America’s largest mountain chain

• Extends from British Columbia (Canada) to New Mexico (USA)

• Length: Over 4,800 km

• Height: Peaks over 4,000 m

• Significance: Forms the Continental Divide; separates Pacific and Atlantic drainage basins

• Highest peak: Mount Robson (3,954 m) in the Canadian Rockies

• Created during the Laramide Orogeny (geological mountain-building period)

• Rich in mineral resources: coal, uranium, metals

• Influences climate with weather phenomena like Chinook winds on eastern slopes

Western Lowlands Between Ranges:

• Region of tablelands, basins, canyons, and deserts exists between the Cascade Range/Sierra Nevada (east) and the Rockies

• Includes the Colorado Plateau, a prominent uplifted feature deeply eroded with canyons

2. The Canadian Shield (Laurentian Plateau)

Location: Eastern, central, and northwestern Canada

Characteristics:

• Raised but relatively flat plateau

• Made of Precambrian metamorphic and igneous rocks (ancient basement rocks)

• Rocky landscape pocked by an astounding number of lakes

• Region of significant mineral wealth

Extent:

• Includes the Laurentian Plateau

• Extends from Quebec (Canada) through central and northern regions

Importance:

• Major source of minerals and metallic ores

• Hydroelectric potential due to river systems

• Strategic waterways and transportation routes

3. The Eastern Highlands (Appalachian System)

Location: Extends from Quebec (Canada) southward to central Alabama (USA)

Characteristics:

• Ancient, eroded mountain range

• Much older than the Rockies (formed during the Caledonian Orogeny)

• Lower elevations compared to western mountains

• Highest peak: Mount Mitchell on Blue Ridge (North Carolina) – approximately 2,037 m

Component Ranges (from north to south):

• Adirondack Mountains: Joined to Canadian Shield, located between Lake Ontario and Gulf of St. Lawrence

• Green Mountains: Part of the northern Appalachian system

• Allegheny Mountains: Part of the southern system

• Blue Ridge Mountains: Contain Mount Mitchell

• Great Smoky Mountains: Southeastern component

• Cumberland Plateau: Located west of the Appalachians in Kentucky; an uplifted peneplain comprising Cumberland Plateau and Allegheny Plateau

Significance:

• Been mined for rich deposits of coal and other minerals for centuries

• Coal is a major economic resource

• Supports historical industrial development

Major Plateaus and Plains

1. Central Lowlands (Interior Plains)

Composition: Structural plains formed by the Mississippi and Missouri river systems

Characteristics:

• Stretch from around the Arctic shores and Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico

• Hemmed in by the Cordilleras in the west and highlands in the east

• Divided into two distinct regions:

  • High Plains (western section): Greater altitudes, semi-arid grasslands

  • Canadian Shield (northern section): Relatively flat with rocky landscapes

2. Great Plains

Location: East of the Rocky Mountains, extending across the USA and Canada

Characteristics:

• Vast high plateau of semi-arid grassland

• Extends approximately 3,000 miles from Rio Grande (south) to Arctic Ocean (north)

• Covers parts of the United States and Canada

• Deep, rich soil blankets large areas

• Landscape varies from flat areas (Texas’s Llano Estacado) to low hills and incised valleys

Significance:

• “Breadbasket of North America” – region of wheat cultivation (winter and summer)

• Fertile soils support major agricultural production feeding a large part of the world

• Rich deposits of oil and natural gas

• Major rivers (Missouri and Red River) drain this region

Vegetation: Prairies – expansive grasslands with fertile soil, grasses, and wild herbs

3. Gulf Coastal Plain

Formation: Plain formed by the Mississippi-Missouri river system

Characteristics:

• Coastal lowlands along the Gulf of Mexico

• Much narrower than the eastern coastal plain

• Transitional zone between interior plains and ocean

Important Features:

• Mississippi River Delta: Major sediment deposition area

• Strategic location for ports and economic development

• Home to important cities like New Orleans

4. Colorado Plateau

Location: Southwestern USA

Characteristics:

• Uplifted plateau

• Deeply eroded by river systems

• Contains spectacular canyon systems, most notably the Grand Canyon

Formation:

• Carved out by the Colorado River through vertical erosion of sedimentary strata over millions of years

• Example of water erosion in desert environments

5. Atlantic and Pacific Coastal Plains

Atlantic Coastal Plain:

• Wider than the Pacific coastal plain

• Extends along the eastern coast

• Includes important harbors and industrial centers

• Contains fertile soils

Pacific Coastal Plain:

• Much narrower than the eastern coastal plain

• Located in California, Oregon, and Washington

• Valuable for agriculture and urban development

Major Deserts

North America contains four major desert regions, primarily located in the southwestern USA and northern Mexico:

1. Great Basin Desert

• Location: Nevada (primarily), also Utah, Oregon, California

• Type: Cold desert

• Climate: Cold winters, hot summers; 6-12 inches annual rainfall

• Vegetation: Sagebrush, junipers, grasses

• Cause: Rain shadow of Sierra Nevada mountains

• Significance: Largest desert in USA; mineral-rich for mining activities

2. Mojave Desert

• Location: Southern California

• Climate: Hot, arid

• Vegetation: Desert shrubs and specialized plants

• Cause: Double rain shadow (Sierra Nevada and coastal ranges)

• Significance: Tourism hub (Death Valley National Park); solar energy production

3. Sonoran Desert

• Location: Southwestern Arizona, southeastern California, northwestern Mexico

• Climate: Bimodal rainfall (winter and summer monsoons); 3-15 inches annually

• Vegetation: Saguaro cactus, palo verde, ocotillo – richest biodiversity among North American deserts

• Cause: Subtropical high-pressure systems and rain shadows

• Significance: Supports agriculture via irrigation; ecotourism and research; cultural significance to indigenous populations

4. Chihuahuan Desert

• Location: Southeastern Arizona, southern New Mexico, western Texas, northern Mexico

• Type: Largest desert in North America by area (~200,000 square miles)

• Climate: Hot summers, cold winters; 6-20 inches rainfall annually

• Vegetation: Agave, yucca, creosote bush

• Cause: Rain shadow of Sierra Madre Occidental

• Significance: Grazing lands; desert agriculture with irrigation; cave systems (Carlsbad Caverns)

Important Peninsulas

Ungava Peninsula

• Located in northern Canada

• Surrounded by Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait

Baja California Peninsula

• Located on the west coast of Mexico

• Extends into the Pacific Ocean

Boothia Peninsula

• Northern Canada

• Surrounded by Arctic waters

Yucatán Peninsula

• Located in southeastern Mexico

• Important for archaeological sites and tourism

MAJOR SEAS, BAYS, AND GULFS

Arctic Ocean Bodies

Atlantic Ocean Bodies

Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean

Pacific Ocean Bodies

MAJOR RIVERS AND RIVER SYSTEMS

1. Mississippi River System

The Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson System: World’s fourth-longest river system (approximately 5,971 km when including Missouri and Jefferson)

Mississippi River (Main Branch):

• Length: ~3,766 km (alone)

• Source: Lake Itasca, northern Minnesota

• Mouth: Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana (flows into Gulf of Mexico)

• Direction: Generally flows north to south

• Drainage: Drains 31 US states and 2 Canadian provinces

Significance:

• Central to US agriculture, transportation, and economy

• Supports one of the largest freshwater ecosystems

• Major commercial waterway with significant port cities

Major Tributaries (use mnemonic “MORA Rocks”):

• Missouri River (longest tributary, ~4,090 km)

• Ohio River (eastern tributary)

• Red River

• Arkansas River

• Rock River

Important Cities on Mississippi:

• Minneapolis (Minnesota)

• St. Louis (Missouri)

• New Orleans (Louisiana)

Major Dams:

• Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock

• Keokuk Dam (Iowa-Illinois border)

2. Missouri River

• Length: ~4,090 km

• Source: Confluence of three rivers in Rocky Mountains of Montana (Jefferson, Madison, Gallatin rivers)

• Mouth: Joins Mississippi River near St. Louis, Missouri

• States: Flows through Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri

• Tributaries: Kansas River, Niobrara River, Yellowstone River

• Major Cities: Great Falls (Montana), Bismarck (North Dakota), Kansas City (Missouri), St. Louis (Missouri)

3. Colorado River

• Length: ~2,330 km

• Source: Continental Divide in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado

• Mouth: Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez), Mexico

• Significance: Major river of arid southwestern USA

• Key Features: Carves the Grand Canyon through vertical erosion of sedimentary strata

• Current Issue: Now often dries up before reaching the sea due to overuse for irrigation and urban water supply

• Drainage Basin: Shared between USA and Mexico

• Major Dams: Hoover Dam (forming Lake Mead), Glen Canyon Dam (forming Lake Powell)

4. Yukon River

• Length: ~3,190 km

• Source: Atlin and Tagish Lakes (Canada)

• Mouth: Norton Sound, Bering Sea (Alaska)

• Significance: Major river in northwestern North America

• Tributaries: Teslin, White, Stewart rivers

• Countries: Flows through Canada and USA (Alaska)

5. Rio Grande

• Length: ~3,034 km

• Source: San Juan Mountains, Colorado

• Significance: Forms the international boundary between USA and Mexico

• Mouth: Gulf of Mexico, Texas

• Region: Southwestern North America

• Note: Does not originate in Rocky Mountains (unlike Missouri, Colorado, Columbia)

6. Columbia River

• Length: ~2,250 km

• Source: Canadian Rockies (British Columbia)

• Mouth: Pacific Ocean, Oregon-Washington border

• Significance: Important for hydroelectric power generation

• Tributaries: Snake River (major tributary)

• Major Feature: Originates in Rocky Mountains

7. Mackenzie River System

• Location: Northwest Canada

• Significance: Part of major North American river systems

• Drain: Into Arctic Ocean

THE GREAT LAKES

The Great Lakes are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes located on the border between the United States and Canada, holding approximately 21% of the world’s freshwater.

The Five Great Lakes

Key Features

Formation: Glacial depression during the Pleistocene epoch; carved by glacial erosion

Freshwater Volume: Contain approximately 21% of the world’s surface freshwater

Geographic Significance:

• Connected to each other through straits and channels

• St. Lawrence River: Links Great Lakes to Atlantic Ocean via St. Lawrence Seaway

• Form a natural international boundary between USA and Canada

• Connected to Hudson Bay system

Economic and Ecological Importance

Transportation:

• Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway is an important trade route

• Connects industrial heartland of North America to foreign markets

• Strategic for international commerce

Water Supply:

• Vital for municipal and industrial water supply

• Support millions of people

Fishing Industry:

• Important commercial and recreational fishing

• Support significant fish populations

Climate Moderation:

• Significantly impact surrounding climate

• Moderately control temperature and influence local weather patterns

• Lake-effect snowfall phenomenon in winter

• Moderate summer temperatures

Recreation:

• Important for tourism and recreation

• Beaches and water sports

• Historical and cultural significance

CLIMATE ZONES

North America exhibits remarkable climatic diversity due to its vast size, varying latitudes, and complex topography. Climate zones vary from arctic to tropical.

Major Climate Types

1. Arctic/Tundra Climate

Location: Northern Canada, Greenland, northern Alaska

Characteristics:

• Extremely cold mean annual temperature

• Mid-winter temperatures: 40-50°C below freezing

• Summers relatively warmer but still cool

• Permafrost (permanently frozen ground)

• Continuous darkness for weeks in mid-winter

• Very low precipitation, mostly snow

Vegetation: Mosses, lichens, sparse grasses; permanently frozen landscape

Wildlife: Reindeer, arctic foxes, polar bears, musk oxen

2. Boreal/Taiga Climate

Location: Northern Canada, parts of Alaska

Characteristics:

• Cold winters, cool summers

• Moderate annual precipitation

• Short growing season

• Permafrost in many areas

Vegetation: Coniferous forests (spruce, fir, pine)

Economic Importance: Soft wood timber production

3. Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate

Location: Eastern Canada, Northeastern USA (New England states)

Characteristics:

• Four distinct seasons

• Rainfall throughout the year (75-150 cm annually)

• Cold winters with snow

• Warm to hot summers

• Continental with maritime influences

Vegetation: Mixed deciduous and coniferous forests

4. Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate

Location: Western Canada (Vancouver provinces), Pacific Northwest USA

Characteristics:

• Influence of westerlies throughout the year

• Mild winters, cool summers

• High annual precipitation

• Moderated by Pacific Ocean

Vegetation: Temperate rainforests with tall evergreens (Douglas fir), mosses, lichens

Features: Vulnerable to logging; important carbon sinks

5. Warm Temperate/Gulf Type Climate

Location: Southeastern USA, Gulf of Mexico region

Characteristics:

• Subtropical to warm temperate

• Maximum rainfall in summer

• Hot, humid summers

• Mild winters

• Experience temperate cyclones in winter; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) in late summers

Vegetation: Mixed deciduous and subtropical forests

Hazards: Hurricane generation in late summer/early fall

6. Temperate Continental Grasslands/Prairie Climate

Location: Central North America (Great Plains, Prairies between Rocky Foothills and Great Lakes)

Characteristics:

• Semi-arid to sub-humid grasslands

• Temperature extremes between winter and summer

• Low to moderate precipitation

• Strong seasonal variation

Vegetation: Prairies – grasses, wild herbs, open grasslands

Agricultural Significance: “Breadbasket of North America”; major wheat production region

7. Desert/Arid Climate

Location: Southwestern USA and northern Mexico

Characteristics:

• Very low annual precipitation (varies by desert)

• High daytime temperatures, cold nights

• Strong diurnal temperature variation

• Rain shadow deserts

Vegetation: Sparse; adapted xerophytic plants (cacti, shrubs, agave)

Four Major Deserts: Great Basin, Mojave, Sonoran, Chihuahuan

8. Tropical Climate

Location: Southern Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands

Characteristics:

• Warm to hot throughout the year

• High humidity

• Monsoonal influences

• Hurricane-prone season

Vegetation: Tropical rainforests, tropical deciduous forests

Features: Seasonal variation driven by monsoon circulation; typhoon/hurricane generation

VEGETATION AND NATURAL BIOMES

Major Vegetation Zones

1. Tundra Vegetation

Location: Arctic Canada, Greenland, northern Alaska

Characteristics:

• Treeless landscape

• Low-growing vegetation: mosses, lichens, sparse grasses

• Plant life adapted to permafrost conditions

• Extremely short growing season

• Low biodiversity but unique adaptations

Wildlife: Arctic foxes, polar bears, musk oxen, reindeer, migratory birds

2. Boreal/Taiga Forests

Location: Northern Canada, Alaska interior

Characteristics:

• Dense coniferous forests

• Dominated by spruce, fir, and pine

• Understory of moss and lichens

• Limited deciduous trees

Wildlife: Moose, bears, wolves, migratory birds, beavers

Economic Importance: Soft wood production (lumber and paper)

3. Temperate Deciduous Forests

Location: Eastern North America (Appalachian region, Great Lakes region)

Characteristics:

• Dominated by deciduous trees (oak, maple, beech, birch)

• Four distinct seasons

• High biodiversity

• Rich soil due to leaf litter decomposition

Wildlife: Deer, bears, raccoons, squirrels, songbirds

4. Temperate Rainforests

Location: Pacific Northwest (Washington, Oregon, British Columbia), parts of Chile

Characteristics:

• Tall evergreens (Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, western hemlock)

• High precipitation (200-400 cm annually)

• Moss and lichen-covered forest floor

• Dense undergrowth

• High biodiversity

Wildlife: Grizzly bears, eagles, salmon, mountain lions, deer, salamanders

Significance: Carbon sinks; vulnerable to logging; important for watershed protection

5. Grasslands/Prairies

Location: Central North America (Great Plains, between Rocky Foothills and Great Lakes)

Characteristics:

• Expansive grasslands with fertile soil

• Grasses, wild herbs, and flowering plants

• Relatively flat terrain

• Semi-arid conditions

• Clear skies and open landscape

Wildlife: Buffalo/bison, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, coyotes, grasshoppers, migratory birds

Agricultural Importance: Wheat production; grazing lands; “Breadbasket of North America”

6. Desert Vegetation

Location: Southwestern USA and northern Mexico

Characteristics:

• Specialized xerophytic (drought-adapted) plants

• Low plant density

• Deep root systems

• Succulent plants (cacti)

• Seasonal flowering

Vegetation by Desert:

• Great Basin: Sagebrush, junipers, grasses

• Mojave: Desert shrubs, Joshua trees

• Sonoran: Saguaro cactus, palo verde, ocotillo

• Chihuahuan: Agave, yucca, creosote bush

Wildlife: Lizards, scorpions, roadrunners, rattlesnakes, coyotes, javelinas

7. Tropical Forests and Vegetation

Location: Southern Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands

Characteristics:

• High biodiversity

• Evergreen and deciduous tropical forests

• High precipitation

• Warm throughout the year

• Dense canopy structure

Vegetation Types:

• Tropical rainforests (high precipitation areas)

• Tropical deciduous forests (seasonal areas)

• Mangrove forests (coastal areas)

Wildlife: Jaguars, sloths, macaws, tropical amphibians, insects, reptiles

NATURAL RESOURCES AND MINERALS

Metallic Minerals

Copper:

• Major Producers: USA (Arizona – Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico)

• Significance: Major world producer; important for electrical and construction industries

Nickel:

• Major Producers: Canada (world’s largest producer); Ontario (Sudbury District), Manitoba, Quebec, Saskatchewan

Zinc:

• Major Producer: Canada (second largest producer)

Platinum:

• Major Producer: Canada (significant producer)

Asbestos:

• Major Producer: Canada (largest producer)

Iron Ore:

• Location: Widespread deposits in Canadian Shield and Great Lakes region

Cobalt:

• Producer: Canada (second largest)

Uranium and Radium:

• Producer: Canada (uranium), USA (uranium – world’s largest producer)

Sulfur:

• Producer: USA (world’s largest producer)

Gold and Silver:

• Location: Scattered deposits in western mountains

Energy Resources

Coal:

• Major Reserves: USA (Appalachian region, Western USA)

• Significance: Important historical fuel source; declining use due to climate concerns

Oil and Natural Gas:

• Major Regions: Great Plains, Alaska, Gulf of Mexico, parts of Canada

• Importance: Foundation of modern economy and energy supply

Hydroelectric Power:

• Location: Great Lakes region (St. Lawrence), Rocky Mountains, Pacific Northwest

• Significance: Important renewable energy source; powers industries and cities

Non-Metallic Minerals and Resources

Phosphate:

• Location: Florida, other southeastern regions

Salt:

• Location: Great Salt Lake (Utah), salt mines in various regions

Gypsum:

• Location: Scattered deposits, especially in deserts

Biological Resources

Forests:

• Soft Wood Forests: Coniferous forests in northern Canada, western Cordilleras, Appalachians

• Hard Wood Forests: Deciduous forests in eastern North America

• Significance: Timber and paper production; carbon sequestration; habitat preservation

Fisheries:

• Marine Fisheries: Atlantic and Pacific coasts; Gulf of Mexico

• Freshwater Fisheries: Great Lakes; major rivers

• Significance: Important food source; commercial industry

Soil Resources:

• Most Productive Soils: Great Plains, around Great Lakes, along Mississippi River

• Significance: Support major agricultural production; fertile for grain cultivation

Water Resources:

• Freshwater Sources: Mississippi River, Great Lakes, Missouri River, Colorado River

• Importance: Municipal and industrial supply; irrigation; navigation; hydroelectric power

Renewable Energy

Solar Energy:

• Potential: Southwestern deserts (Arizona, New Mexico, California)

• Development: Increasing solar farms in high insolation areas

Wind Energy:

• Location: Great Plains, coastal regions

• Potential: Growing wind farm development

ECONOMIC REGIONS AND MAJOR CITIES

Major Metropolitan Areas

North America’s Largest Cities:

Major Industrial Regions

Great Lakes Region:

• States: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and others

• Industry: Automobiles, steel production, heavy machinery, chemicals

• Access to: Great Lakes shipping, mineral resources, agricultural products

Rust Belt:

• Location: Northeastern and Midwestern USA

• Industries: Steel production, automobiles, machinery

• Current Status: Transition from manufacturing to service industries; renewal efforts

Oil and Gas Regions:

• Gulf Coast: Texas, Louisiana – petrochemicals, refineries

• Alberta, Canada: Oil sands; major energy producer

• Alaska: Oil exploration and extraction

Agricultural Regions:

• Great Plains: Wheat, corn, soybeans, livestock

• Central Valley (California): Fruits, vegetables, nuts

• Midwest: Corn, soybeans, dairy

Technology and Service Centers:

• Silicon Valley (California): Information technology, software, semiconductors

• Seattle area (Washington): Technology, aerospace, software

• Boston area (Massachusetts): Technology, research, education

• Austin (Texas): Technology, software development

Tourism Centers:

• Las Vegas, Nevada: Entertainment, gambling, tourism

• Orlando, Florida: Theme parks, tourism

• Caribbean islands: Beach tourism, winter destinations

• Banff and Lake Louise (Canada): Mountain tourism

• Niagara Falls: Tourism, hydroelectric power

HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS

Geopolitical Significance

Strategic Location:

• Gateway between Arctic, Atlantic, and Pacific

• Bering Strait separates North America from Asia

• Isthmus of Panama connects to South America

• Control of major shipping lanes

Economic Interdependence:

• USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement) trade bloc

• Major flows of goods, services, and labor

• Integrated supply chains across the continent

Environmental Challenges

Climate Change:

• Arctic warming affecting Greenland ice sheet

• Permafrost melting in northern regions

• Sea level rise threatening coastal areas

Water Resources:

• Over-allocation of Colorado River

• Great Lakes pollution and conservation issues

• Freshwater depletion in some regions

Desertification:

• Dust Bowl effects in Great Plains history

• Ongoing drought in southwestern USA and Mexico

Deforestation:

• Logging pressure on temperate rainforests

• Tropical forest loss in Central America and southern Mexico

Biodiversity Loss:

• Habitat fragmentation

• Species decline (bison, wolves, eagles historically hunted to near extinction)

• Conservation efforts and wildlife recovery programs

Urban Development:

• Rapid urbanization and megacity growth

• Sprawl affecting agricultural and natural lands

• Infrastructure strain on water and energy systems

KEY POINTS 

Critical Geography:

• The 49°N parallel divides Canada and USA

• The 100°W longitude divides North America into equal parts

• Five time zones across the continent

• Arctic Circle and Tropic of Cancer pass through the region

Physical Geography Essentials:

• Rocky Mountains: Largest range; forms Continental Divide

• Great Lakes: Hold 21% of world’s freshwater

• Mississippi-Missouri system: 4th longest in world

• Colorado River: Carves Grand Canyon

Climate Diversity:

• From Arctic tundra (north) to tropical (south)

• Temperate zones in central regions

• Desert zones in southwest

• Coastal moderation effects on Pacific and Atlantic shores

Economic Resources:

• North America’s mineral wealth: Copper (USA), Nickel (Canada), diverse metals

• Agricultural supremacy: Wheat, corn, soybeans in Great Plains and Midwest

• Energy resources: Oil, natural gas, coal, hydroelectric, emerging renewables

• Technology and service sectors in major metropolitan areas

Strategic Importance:

• Bering Strait: International border with Asia

• Panama Canal region: Important global shipping route

• Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway: Major trade corridor

• Arctic resources and climate change implications

Geography