Richard Wellesley
Contents
Richard Wellesley (1798-1805):
Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley (1760-1842) served as Governor-General of India from 1798 to 1805. He is considered one of the most vigorous expansionists in the history of the British Raj. Wellesley fundamentally transformed British India by shifting the Company’s policy from consolidation to aggressive territorial expansion. His tenure witnessed the introduction of the Subsidiary Alliance System and major military victories that established British supremacy over Indian powers.
1. Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance (1798)
Concept and Framework
The Subsidiary Alliance System was Wellesley’s most significant policy innovation. Under this system, Indian rulers entered into alliances with the British East India Company whereby:
Military Protection: The Company stationed a permanent British military force within the allied Indian state’s territory.
Financial Burden: The Indian ruler was compelled to pay a subsidy for the maintenance of this British force. In some cases, instead of cash payment, the ruler ceded part of his territory to the Company.
Political Subjugation: Although framed as a protective measure, the subsidiary alliance transformed Indian rulers into subordinate client-states of the Company.
Key Provisions
The Indian ruler would accept a British Resident (political representative) posted at his court.
The ruler could not employ any European in his service without British approval.
The ruler could not negotiate treaties or enter into alliances with other Indian rulers without consulting the Governor-General.
The British promised to defend the allied state against external enemies and internal revolts.
Strategic Significance
The subsidiary alliance was fundamentally different from the earlier system of merely maintaining paid contingents. Wellesley perfected it into an instrument of subordination that allowed the British to:
Expand their control without the cost and risks of outright conquest
Create a buffer of dependent states around core British territories
Neutralize Indian powers without formal annexation
Maintain the appearance of respecting princely sovereignty while exercising real control
States That Accepted Subsidiary Alliance
The Nizam of Hyderabad was the first to sign a subsidiary treaty in 1798. This was followed by:
Mysore (after the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, 1799)
Awadh (1801)
Various Rajput states
The Maratha Peshwa through the Treaty of Bassein (1802)
2. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
Background and Context
Before Wellesley’s arrival in 1798, three Anglo-Mysore Wars had already been fought (1766-69, 1780-84, 1790-92). Tipu Sultan, the dynamic and aggressive ruler of Mysore, posed a formidable challenge to British expansion in South India. His growing correspondence with Napoleon Bonaparte and French officials raised British anxieties about a potential Franco-Mysore alliance that could threaten British dominance in India.
Tipu’s international diplomacy, including embassies to Arabia, Afghanistan, Mauritius, and Versailles, convinced Wellesley that decisive action against Mysore was imperative. The pretext was that Tipu was allegedly plotting against British interests, accusations to which Tipu’s explanations could not satisfy the aggressive Governor-General.
Course of the War
Duration: April 17 – May 4, 1799 (extremely brief, only 17 days of active conflict)
Theaters of Operation: Three armies invaded Mysore simultaneously—one from Bombay and two British contingents (one commanded by Colonel Arthur Wellesley, the Governor-General’s younger brother, who later became the Duke of Wellington)
Key Battle: Siege and Fall of Seringapatam (April-May 1799)
The Battle of Seringapatam
Seringapatam, Mysore’s capital, was besieged by British forces. The British employed superior artillery and disciplined infantry formations. Notable events included:
The initial engagements at the Battle of Seedaseer (March 8, 1799)
The Battle of Sultanpet Tope (April 5, 1799), where Tipu’s rocket brigades proved effective, initially repulsing Colonel Arthur Wellesley’s assault
The final assault on Seringapatam and the death of Tipu Sultan during the siege
Significance of Tipu’s Death
Tipu Sultan was killed during the siege of Seringapatam, effectively eliminating the last major independent Indian power in South India. This victory:
Permanently ended French influence in the Deccan
Removed the threat of a Franco-Indian alliance
Established unquestionable British military supremacy in South India
Post-War Settlement
Following Tipu’s defeat:
Mysore was restored to the Wodeyar (Wadiyar) dynasty, the earlier Hindu ruling family, but as a subordinate state
A young prince of the Wodeyar dynasty was placed on the throne with a British Commissioner to oversee all administrative decisions
Tipu’s minor son, Fateh Ali, was sent into exile
Significant territories were annexed to British possession or transferred to allied powers:
Coimbatore, Dakshina Kannada, and Uttara Kannada were ceded to the British
The Nizam of Hyderabad received Gooty and Gurramkonda
The Marathas were offered Soonda and Harponelly but refused them
British military occupation and control were institutionalized through the subsidiary alliance system
Broader Implications
This war demonstrated that the British could decisively defeat the strongest remaining Indian power. It shocked Indian rulers into recognizing British military superiority and encouraged many to voluntarily enter into subsidiary alliances rather than face conquest.
3. Censorship Act, 1799
Historical Context
By the late 18th century, printing presses had begun spreading in India, particularly in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. Newspapers such as Hicky’s Bengal Gazette (1780), Calcutta Chronicle, and India Gazette published news, commentary, and sometimes criticism of Company officials. This nascent press freedom alarmed British administrators.
The international environment reinforced this concern. The French Revolution had spread revolutionary ideas globally, and Britain, engaged in wars with Napoleonic France, feared that subversive literature might influence Anglo-Indian and Indian populations. During military conflicts like the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, uncontrolled publication of sensitive information posed security risks.
Provisions of the Censorship Act
The Act introduced multiple control mechanisms:
1. Pre-Censorship Requirement
Every newspaper and printed work required prior approval from the Chief Secretary to the Governor-General before publication
This transformed the unregulated press into a fully controlled media apparatus
2. Licensing of Printing Presses
No printing press could operate without a government license
Printers had to register with colonial authorities, disclosing ownership, location, and nature of publications
3. Content Restrictions
Publishers were prohibited from printing content related to British politics, foreign affairs, or colonial administration without prior clearance
Criticism of the East India Company’s policies, military actions, or officials was strictly forbidden
Information that could endanger British military operations or compromise state security was banned
4. Penalties for Violation
Violators faced closure of their press, confiscation of equipment, imprisonment, and deportation
Purpose and Impact
The Act reflected colonial anxiety about press freedom as a political threat. By 1799, press censorship became formalized policy rather than ad hoc administrative action. The immediate effect was the suppression of journalistic independence; editors became cautious, and newspapers confined themselves to commercial, literary, and social news rather than political commentary.
Historical Significance
The Censorship Act of 1799 established the framework for state surveillance and censorship in colonial India. It represented the first formal legislative attempt to control the Indian press and set precedents for future press control laws, including the Licensing Regulations of 1823 and eventually the notorious Vernacular Press Act of 1878.
4. Assumption of Administration: Tanjore (1799), Surat (1800), Carnatic (1801)
Tanjore (1799)
Background: The Maratha state of Tanjore faced a succession dispute. Serfoji, the claimant to the throne, sought British support.
Action Taken: Wellesley concluded a treaty with Serfoji in 1799 whereby:
The British assumed complete administrative control over Tanjore
Serfoji was allowed to retain the title of Raja (without real power)
He received a pension of four lakh rupees annually
This established the precedent of leaving a ruler as a figurehead while exercising real authority
Surat (1800)
Background: The death of the Nawab of Surat in 1799 created a succession dispute between his brother and other claimants, providing an opportune moment for British intervention.
Action Taken: Wellesley took over the administration in 1800:
The British assumed full administrative and military control
The successor Nawab was permitted to retain his title
He was granted a pension of one lakh rupees annually
Britain secured control of this crucial coastal trading port
Carnatic (Carnatkak) (1801)
Background: The Carnatic (or Carnatic region), though technically independent, was already financially exhausted and politically fragmented.
Action Taken: Wellesley signed a treaty with Azim-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Carnatic, in 1801:
Entire military and civil administration came under British control
The Nawab retained nominal authority but exercised no real power
Territory that yielded revenue was ceded to the Company
Strategic Significance
These three annexations (Tanjore, Surat, and Carnatic) served multiple purposes:
They eliminated independent principalities that could ally with competitors (French or Indian)
They acquired rich territories with substantial revenue
They established Britain as the paramount power in South India
The method demonstrated the flexibility of Wellesley’s approach: achieving control through administration rather than outright annexation when circumstances permitted
These actions preceded the Second Anglo-Maratha War, providing secure bases for operations against the Marathas
5. Fort William College, Calcutta (1800)
Foundation and Purpose
Fort William College was established on August 18, 1800, within the Fort William complex in Calcutta. Wellesley backdated its formal founding statute to May 4, 1800 to commemorate the first anniversary of his victory at Seringapatam.
Rationale
Unlike his predecessor Lord Cornwallis, who believed in high salaries as the key to honest administration, Wellesley believed that proper education and training were essential. He recognized that Company officials operating in India without knowledge of local languages, customs, and administration would be inefficient and potentially corrupt. The College aimed to train young European civil servants to become competent administrators by making them literate in Indian languages and conversant with Indian culture.
Curriculum and Functions
The College initially served as:
Language Training Centre: Young British officials received instruction in Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Bengali, Hindi, Urdu, and other Indian languages
Cultural Education: Officials studied Indian history, geography, customs, and administrative practices
Administrative Training: The institution prepared Company servants for district administration
Scholarly Activities
The College became a center for:
Translation of Indian texts from Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic into English
Compilation of dictionaries and grammatical works
Development of standardized orthography for Indian languages (particularly Bengali and Urdu)
Fostering of scholarly interest in oriental learning
Institutional Status and Controversy
Wellesley envisioned the College as the “Oxford of the East”, but his vision faced opposition from the Company’s Court of Directors in London. Charles Grant and others feared that such intensive cultural immersion might shift civil servants’ loyalties from London to Calcutta. The institution was compromised into a more limited linguistic school. Nevertheless, it remained significant for:
Developing Bengali and Urdu as literary languages
Attracting leading intellectuals and pandits
Contributing to the intellectual ferment that later enabled the Bengal Renaissance
Historical Context
The establishment of Fort William College in 1800 represented the completion of Calcutta’s emergence as an intellectual center, following:
The Calcutta Madrasa (1781) under Warren Hastings
The Asiatic Society (1784) founded by William Jones
6. Treaty of Bassein (1802) and Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)
Background to the Treaty of Bassein
The Maratha Confederacy by 1802 was weakened by internal rivalries. After the death of the Peshwa’s powerful minister, Nana Fadnavis, in 1800, the confederacy fragmented. Military chiefs Daulat Rao Scindia and Jaswant Rao Holkar competed for influence over the Peshwa. In October 1802, Holkar defeated Scindia and the Peshwa, installing an adopted brother on the throne. The Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to the coastal fortress of Bassein (Vasai) and appealed to the British for assistance.
The Treaty: December 31, 1802
Signatory: Baji Rao II (Maratha Peshwa) and the East India Company
Terms of the Treaty:
Subsidiary Force: The Peshwa agreed to maintain a permanent British subsidiary force of approximately 6,000 troops, later specified as six battalions
Financial Arrangement: Territories yielding 2.6 million rupees annually were to be transferred to the Company to pay for the maintenance of this force
Territorial Cessions: The Peshwa renounced claims on Surat and Baroda, which were strategically important trading centers
Foreign Policy Restrictions:
The Peshwa could not declare war without consulting the Company
The Peshwa could not enter into treaties without Company approval
Any territorial claims would be subject to Company arbitration (involving the Nizam and Gaekwar)
European Service Ban: The Peshwa was required to exclude all Europeans from his service except those authorized by the Company
Diplomatic Subordination: The Peshwa had to conduct foreign relations in consultation with the British
Immediate Consequences
On May 13, 1803, British forces under Arthur Wellesley (the Governor-General’s brother) entered Poona and restored Baji Rao II to power
Baji Rao II became essentially a puppet of the British, retaining title but exercising no real authority
The Treaty transformed the Peshwa into the first major Indian ruler to formally accept the subsidiary alliance system
Rejection by Other Maratha Powers
The Treaty of Bassein was not acceptable to other Maratha chieftains, particularly:
Daulat Rao Scindia (ruler of Gwalior and allied territories)
Yashwant Rao Holkar (ruler of Indore)
Bhonsale Raja of Berar
These chiefs viewed the treaty as an unacceptable British encroachment into Maratha affairs and a humiliating subordination of the Peshwa. Their rejection of the treaty precipitated the Second Anglo-Maratha War.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)
Causes
Other Maratha chiefs’ rejection of the Treaty of Bassein
Their determination to preserve Maratha independence and the confederacy’s integrity
British determination to consolidate control by defeating all rival powers
Course and Major Battles
1. Battle of Assaye (September 23, 1803) – The Decisive Engagement
Combatants: British forces under Major General Arthur Wellesley vs. combined Maratha army of Daulat Rao Scindia and Raja of Berar
Location: Near Assaye in western India (present-day Maharashtra)
Force Strength: Despite being significantly outnumbered, Wellesley engaged the Marathas
Course: The Maratha forces, commanded by German officer Colonel Anthony Pohlmann, had superior numbers in infantry, cavalry, and artillery. However, their cavalry-based tactics proved ineffective against disciplined British infantry formations with bayonet charges. Wellesley committed his cavalry reserves decisively, routing the Maratha army
Casualties: The Maratha forces suffered approximately 1,200 casualties (modern estimates suggest 6,000 total killed and wounded), and lost 98 cannon and large quantities of ammunition and supplies
Significance: This battle was Arthur Wellesley’s first great victory, one he later described as his finest battlefield accomplishment, even surpassing his later victories in the Peninsular War and at Waterloo
2. Other Operations
The war extended to multiple fronts across central and western India
British forces defeated Scindia and Bhonsale
Holkar remained undefeated and continued resistance, but was eventually forced to seek peace
Territorial Outcomes
Through the Second Anglo-Maratha War and subsequent treaties:
The British gained complete control of the Orissa coast
British territories now included the regions between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers (Upper Doab or the region between the two rivers)
The Peshwa became a pensioned puppet ruler of the Company
Other Maratha chiefs were reduced to subsidiary allies or annexed their territories to the Company
Historical Significance
The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805) effectively ended Maratha power as an independent force in India. The Marathas, who had once been the dominant military power challenging British expansion, were now subdued and fragmented. This war consolidated British supremacy across the entire subcontinent.
7. Raj Bhavan at Calcutta (1803)
Construction and Inception
Raj Bhavan (Government House), located in Calcutta (now Kolkata), was constructed during the years 1799-1803 under Wellesley’s governorship. The building was formally opened on January 18, 1803, though Wellesley took up residence before construction was entirely completed in 1803, such was his eagerness to occupy a residence befitting the ruler of the British Empire in India.
Architectural Significance
Design: The building was modeled on Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire, the ancestral seat of the Adam family, modified to suit tropical climatic conditions
Architect: Lieutenant William Wyatt (with involvement of uncle Samuel Wyatt)
Structure: A three-storied building with magnificent central halls, curved corridors radiating to four sides, and detached pavilion wings
Area: The building occupies approximately 27 acres with 84,000 square feet of floor space
Features: Marble Hall (ground floor), Throne Room, Banquet Hall, Council Chamber (where major government decisions were made), multiple drawing rooms and dining rooms, Governor’s apartments, and Ball Room
Symbolic Significance
The Raj Bhavan served as a symbol of British imperial power and authority in India. Its grand design, strategic location overlooking Calcutta’s Maidan (open parkland), and elaborate gardens all projected an image of power and permanence. It became the official residence of all subsequent Governor-Generals until the capital shifted to Delhi in 1912.
Summary of Wellesley’s Achievements
Lord Wellesley’s tenure (1798-1805) fundamentally transformed British India:
Subsidiary Alliance System: Introduced a mechanism for subordinating Indian states without direct conquest
Military Dominance: Defeated Tipu Sultan and the Marathas, the two strongest Indian powers
Territorial Expansion: Increased Company territories from approximately 19% of India (1798) to around 50% by 1805
Institutional Development: Established Fort William College for training administrators
Press Control: Institutionalized censorship to manage public opinion
Administrative Integration: Assumed direct control over key regions (Tanjore, Surat, Carnatic)
Strategic Symbolism: Constructed Raj Bhavan as a monument to British authority
By 1805, Wellesley had effectively established British supremacy across the Indian subcontinent. Though he was eventually recalled due to financial extravagances and his aggressive policies alarming the Court of Directors, his legacy was the transformation of British India from a limited coastal presence into the paramount power dominating most of the subcontinent. Subsequent Governor-Generals like Lord Hastings continued this trajectory, but it was Wellesley who set the foundation for the eventual consolidation of British rule leading to the establishment of the British Raj.
