Sites of Indus Valley Civilization

Sites of Indus Valley Civilization: Comprehensive Notes

Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization, flourished between approximately 2600–1900 BCE in the region of the Indus River and its tributaries. Over 1,052 settlements have been identified, with approximately 96 excavated. These sites are distributed across modern-day Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. The civilization was spread over an area of approximately 1.3 million square kilometers, making it one of the world’s largest Bronze Age civilizations.

Major Indus Valley Civilization Sites

1. HARAPPA

Location: Punjab province, Pakistan (on the left bank of the Ravi River)

River System: Ravi River

Discovery & Excavation:

• First discovered in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni of the Archaeological Survey of India

• Further excavations were conducted under the direction of Sir John Marshall, Director-General of ASI, from 1921-1922 onwards

• This was the first site of the Indus Valley Civilization to be discovered

Key Features:

• First urban centre to be excavated

• Contains remains from Early, Mature, and Late Harappan phases

• Well-planned grid layout with streets intersecting at right angles

• Six granaries arranged in two rows (the most significant finding)

• Standardized burnt bricks used in construction

• Cemetery H (burial ground) with coffin burials

• Evidence of phallus worship and Mother Goddess figurines

• Drainage system with underground channels and soak pits

• Male torso and red sandstone sculptures

• Seals with typical Harappan symbols and script

Significance: Harappa represents urban sophistication and demonstrates surplus agricultural production supporting non-agricultural specialists and trade networks.

2. MOHENJODARO

Location: Larkana district, Sindh Province, Pakistan (approximately 5 km from the Indus River)

River System: Indus River

Discovery & Excavation:

• Discovered in 1922 by R.D. Banerjee (initial identification)

• Extensively excavated under Sir John Marshall and later archaeologists

• Sir Mortimer Wheeler led additional excavations in the 1930s

• Excavations continued through the 1960s-70s with George F. Dales

Key Features:

• Name means “Mound of the Dead”

• Most prominent and largest site of the Harappan Civilization

• Two main zones: citadel (upper town) and lower town

• Great Bath — the most distinctive structure; possibly used for ritual purposes

• Largest public structure with sophisticated waterproofing (watertight construction using bitumen)

• Great Granary — consisting of 27 blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by ventilation channels

• Advanced underground drainage system

• Terracotta and stone figurines

• Pashupati Seal (discovered 1928) — depicting a horned deity with three faces resembling Hindu deity Shiva; dated to 2300 BCE

• Statue of a Dancing Girl (Bronze figurine)

• Priest-King statue (bearded head with inlaid eyes)

• Ivory weight balances

• Evidence of the Indus script on clay tablets and seals

• Multi-storied brick houses with wells and bathing platforms

Significance: Mohenjo-Daro exemplifies the sophistication of urban planning, public infrastructure, and ritualistic practices of the Indus Valley Civilization.

3. KALIBANGAN

Location: Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan, India (on the left bank of the now-dry Ghaggar River, approximately 310 km northwest of Delhi)

River System: Ghaggar-Hakra River (considered the dried-up remains of the legendary Saraswati River)

Discovery & Excavation:

• First identified as a prehistoric site by Luigi Pio Tessitori, an Italian Indologist (1887-1919)

• Recognized as a Harappan site by Amlanand Ghosh (Ex-Director General, ASI) in 1950-53

• Major excavations from 1960–1969 under B.K. Thapar, M.D. Khare, K.M. Shrivastava, and S.P. Jain

• Supervised by B.B. Lal (then Director General, ASI)

Key Features:

• Name derived from “Kali” (black) and “Bangan” (bangles) — named after terracotta bangles found here

• Provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization

• Three-mound structure (largest centre, smallest west, smallest east)

• Both pre-Harappan and Harappan settlement layers discovered

• Fire altars — evidence of animal sacrifice, unique to this site

• World’s earliest attested ploughed fields — showing evidence of irrigation and agricultural practices

• Trepanned skulls — indicating advanced surgical knowledge and medical practices

• Lower and upper fortified towns with grid pattern layout

• Well-planned streets and drain systems

• Wooden drainage channels

• Copper and terracotta figurines

• Copper ox (bullocks)

• Evidence of earthquake damage on structures

• Shell and stone ornaments

• Boustrophedon style writing — text written alternately from right to left and left to right

Significance: Kalibangan provides crucial evidence of agricultural practices, ritual and religious beliefs, and demonstrates pre-Harappan cultural transitions.

4. LOTHAL

Location: Ahmednagar district, Gujarat, India (in the Kutch region, along the Bhogava River, a tributary of the Sabarmati River, near the Gulf of Khambat)

River System: Bhogava River (Sabarmati tributary)

Discovery & Excavation:

• Excavated under the direction of S.R. Rao of the Archaeological Survey of India

• Full remains date from 2400–1600 BCE (Late Harappan phase)

Key Features:

• Only port-town of the Indus Valley Civilization

• Unique tidal dockyard — a basin measuring approximately 217 m long and 26 m wide with inlet and outlet channels

• Evidence of wharf and maritime trade infrastructure

• Upper town (citadel) and lower town divisions

• Citadel demarcated by mud-brick platforms (4 m height)

• Large warehouse structure with square platform

• Bead-making factory in the lower town

• Bead production at industrial scale — carnelian beads, semi-precious stones

• Graveyard with double burials

• Fire altars

• Evidence of rice cultivation (early evidence in the subcontinent)

• Thick peripheral walls (12–21 meters) designed to withstand tidal floods

• Trade evidence: seals and artifacts tracing origins to Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia

• Copper weights and ivory weight balances

• Stone anchors and marine shells

• UNESCO World Heritage Site designation

Significance: Lothal demonstrates maritime trade networks, sophisticated port engineering, and the economic importance of bead production and export.

5. DHOLAVIRA

Location: Kutch district, Gujarat, India (near the village of Dholavira)

River System: Between Mansar and Manhar seasonal streams

Discovery & Excavation:

• Excavated by R.S. Bisht (Archaeological Survey of India) from 1990 onwards

• Major excavations continued under his direction establishing it as a significant site

Key Features:

• Name “Kotada” in local dialect

• Inhabited between 3000–1800 BCE (1,200-year occupation)

• Fifth-largest Indus Valley Civilization site

• Unique three-part city plan: Citadel, Middle Town, and Lower Town

• Only site with urban zoning divisions clearly marked

• Advanced water management system — world’s earliest known reservoir system with dams and embankments

• Multiple reservoirs and water channels for water conservation

• Stone architecture instead of typical baked bricks

• Large signboard with Harappan script (largest inscription found)

• City gates and fortified structures

• Ceremonial ground

• Cemetery to the west

• Massive stepped reservoirs (baolis)

• Rock-cut architecture

• Tropic of Cancer passes through this site

• UNESCO World Heritage Site (2021)

Significance: Dholavira exemplifies sophisticated water management systems, long-term urban planning, and adaptation to arid climate.

6. RAKHIGARHI

Location: Hisar district, Haryana, India (approximately 150 km northwest of Delhi, on the Ghaggar-Hakra River plain)

River System: Ghaggar-Hakra River

Discovery & Excavation:

• First discovered in 1963 by the Archaeological Survey of India

• Excavations by Amarendra Nath (ASI) from 1997–2000

• Dr. Vasant Shinde (Deccan College, Pune) from 2012–2016

• Dr. Sanjay Manjul (Institute of Archaeology) from 2022 onwards

• Currently the largest-known Harappan site

Key Features:

• Largest Indus Valley Civilization site with 300–350 hectares of archaeological remains

• Nine main mounds originally; two additional mounds discovered in 2014 (Mounds 1–9)

• RGR-7 represents a cemetery and burial ground of the mature phase

• Early, Mature, and Late Harappan phase evidence

• Paved roads and streets with grid layout

• Advanced drainage systems

• Large rainwater collection and storage systems

• Terracotta and baked brick construction

• Evidence of statue and sculpture production

• Skilled working of bronze and precious metals

• Gold foundry with approximately 3,000 unpolished semi-precious stones

• Jewelry including bangles (terracotta, conch shells, gold, semi-precious stones)

• Tools for polishing stones, furnaces

• Bronze vessels decorated with gold and silver

• Copper fish hooks, needles, and combs

• Terracotta seals with Indus script

• Complete skeletal remains (4,600 years old) with burial goods including pottery and shell bangles

• DNA analysis of skeletal remains — earliest DNA evidence of Indus inhabitants

• Evidence of animal sacrifice and fire altars

Significance: Rakhigarhi provides critical genetic and anthropological data about the Indus Valley population and represents the northern boundary of mature Harappan settlements.

7. BANAWALI

Location: Fatehabad district, Haryana, India (approximately 120 km northeast of Kalibangan)

River System: Saraswati River (now dried up)

Discovery & Excavation:

• Excavated by R.S. Bisht (Archaeological Survey of India) in 1973–1974

• Located on the upper middle valley of the Saraswati River (compared to Kalibangan in lower middle valley)

Key Features:

• Earlier called “Vanavali”

• Three cultural periods identified:

  • Period I (c. 2500–2300 BCE): Pre-Harappan (Kalibangan phase)

  • Period II (c. 2300–1700 BCE): Mature Harappan

  • Period III (c. 1700–1500/1450 BCE): Post-Harappan (Banawali-Bara phase)

• Well-planned houses constructed from kiln-burnt and moulded bricks

• Defence wall measuring 105 m length, 4.5 m height, and 6 m width

• Chess-board pattern fortified town (200 m × 500 m)

• Two adjacent areas: one for ruling class, one for common people

• North-south thoroughfares intersecting at right angles with east-west lanes

• Houses with rammed earth floors, mud-plastered walls, rooms, kitchens, and toilets

• Storage facilities similar to strongrooms at other sites

• Replica of the plough discovered

• Clay figurine of Mother Goddess

• Pottery assemblage similar to Kalibangan I period

• Typical Harappan pottery (vases, jars, vessels)

Significance: Banawali represents a transitional settlement and provides evidence of agricultural practices and continuity from pre-Harappan to Harappan cultures.

8. CHANHUDARO

Location: Sindh Province, Pakistan (approximately 12 miles east of the present-day Indus River bed)

River System: Indus River basin

Discovery & Excavation:

• First excavated by N.G. Majumdar in March 1931

• Re-excavated during winter session 1935–36 by Ernest John Henry Mackay (American School of Indic and Iranian Studies and Boston Museum of Fine Arts)

• Further exploratory work by Mohammed Rafique Mughal after Pakistan’s independence

• French Archaeological Mission in the Indus Basin (MAFBI) directed by Aurore Didier (CNRS) since 2015

Key Features:

• Group of three low mounds forming parts of a single settlement (~7 hectares)

• Only major Indus Valley Civilization site without a citadel

• Centre for specialized bead manufacturing — particularly carnelian beads

• Settlement period: 4000–1700 BCE

• Evidence of mass production facilities

• Copper tools and metal items: knives, spears, razors, tools, axes, vessels, dishes, fish hooks

• Nicknamed “Sheffield of the British Empire” by Ernest Mackay (due to copper production)

• Terracotta cart models with seated driver

• Small terracotta bird (whistle when blown)

• Ceramic dishes and plates

• Inkpot (evidence of writing materials)

• Pottery of various types

• No major public monuments or granary

Significance: Chanhudaro demonstrates specialized craft production and industrial organization in Indus Valley society.

9. SUTKAGANDOR

Location: Baluchistan, Pakistan (Makran coast, approximately 480 km west of Karachi, near Gwadar, close to the Iranian border, Union Council of Suntsar)

River System: Dasht River and Gajo Kaur (smaller stream)

Discovery & Excavation:

• Discovered in 1876 by Major Edward Mockler (Assistant Political Agent, Makran Coast)

• Visited and excavated by Aurel Stein in 1928 (as part of his Gedrosia tour)

• Extensively excavated in October 1960 by George F. Dales (University of California, Berkeley) as part of his Makran Survey

Key Features:

• Westernmost known Indus Valley Civilization site

• Smaller settlement measuring approximately 4.5 hectares (300 m × 150 m)

• Citadel and lower town divisions

• Massive stone fortification walls of semi-dressed stones (7.5 m thick at base at one point)

• Citadel wall varying in height due to irregular rock foundation

• Inner face of wall slightly battered; outer face at 23°–40° slope

• Structures made from stone and mud bricks without straw

• Trade post and defensive settlement

• Maritime trade links with Mesopotamia

• Copper-bronze disc (possibly BMAC — Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex association)

• 127 flint blades without cores (up to 27.5 cm length)

• Stone vessels and arrowheads (stone and copper)

• Shell beads and pottery

• Evidence of trade networks extending westward

Significance: Sutkagan Dor marks the western boundary of the Indus Valley Civilization and demonstrates maritime trade connections.

10. BALAKOT (KOT BALA)

Location: Lasbela District, Balochistan, Pakistan (near Makran coast of the Arabian Sea, interior of Sonmiani Bay)

River System: Arabian Sea coast

Discovery & Excavation:

• Excavated by Professor George F. Dales (University of California, Berkeley) from 1963–1976

• Only professionally excavated site in the region

Key Features:

• Settlement predates Indus Valley Civilization by many centuries (around 4000 BCE)

• Lower levels show pre-Harappan culture; upper levels represent Indus influence

• Arrival of Indus influence was sudden (not gradual evolution)

• Coastal settlement near Arabian Sea

• Shell processing units

• Bead-making factory

• Evidence of harboring facilities for Indus traders

• Earliest evidence of furnace structures

• Important maritime harbour for Indus traders sailing to Arabian Peninsula coasts

• Importance for trade route studies

Significance: Balakot demonstrates the extent of Indus maritime trade networks and cultural expansion.

11. ALAMGIRPUR

Location: Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh, India (on Hindon River, Ganga-Yamuna Doab, approximately 25 km west of Meerut, ~28 km from Delhi)

River System: Hindon River (tributary of Yamuna)

Discovery & Excavation:

• First excavated by Bharat Sewak Samaj (1958), with pottery and beads discovered

• Examined by Y.D. Sharma (North-Western Circle, Department of Archaeology), who identified Harappan affiliation

• Partially excavated by Archaeological Survey of India in 1958–1959

Key Features:

• Easternmost known site of the Indus Valley Civilization

• Known as Parshuram ka Tila/Khera (Parshuram’s Mound)

• Dimensions: 60 m east-west, 50 m north-south, 6 m average elevation

• Settlement thrived along Yamuna River (c. 3300–1300 BCE)

• Four cultural periods identified with intervening breaks

• Earliest level dated 2600–2200 BCE (calibrated)

• Kiln-burnt bricks (11.25–11.75 in. length, 5.25–6.25 in. breadth, 2.5–2.75 in. thickness)

• Pottery workshop complex

• Typical Harappan pottery: roof tiles, dishes, cups, vases, cubicle dice, beads

• Terracotta cakes, carts, and figurines (humped bull and snake)

• Beads of steatite paste, faience, glass, carnelian, quartz, agate, and black jasper

• Possibly ear studs made of semi-precious stones

• Small gold-coated terracotta bead

• Evidence of cloth impressions on a trough — indicating weaving technology

• Copper blade fragment

• Bear head fragment (part of vessel)

• Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery

• Terracotta figurines and ornaments

Significance: Alamgirpur marks the eastern extent of Indus Valley Civilization and demonstrates craft specialization in bead production.

12. DAIMABAD

Location: Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India (on the western edge of the Deccan plateau)

River System: Godavari River basin

Discovery & Excavation:

• Discovered by B.P. Bopardikar in 1958

• First excavation (1958–59) under M.N. Deshpande (ASI)

• Second excavation (1974–75) under S.R. Rao (ASI)

• Third excavations (1975–76 to 1978–79) under S.A. Sali (ASI)

Key Features:

• Southernmost known site of the Indus Valley Civilization

• Represents Harappan expansion into the Deccan region

• Evidence of Late Harappan culture extending into south India

• Four bronze sculptures discovered:

  • Chariot (representing warfare and mobility)

  • Bull (sacred animal)

  • Elephant (symbol of wealth and power)

  • Rhinoceros

• Shows IVC influence in Deccan Plateau

• Cultural exchange with Deccan societies

• Maharashtra’s major chalcolithic site

• Settlement abandoned at transition to later period

Significance: Daimabad demonstrates the geographical reach and cultural expansion of the Indus Valley Civilization southward and challenges traditional boundaries.

Summary Table: Major Indus Valley Civilization Sites

River Systems of Indus Valley Civilization

Indus River System:

The IVC developed primarily along:

1. Indus River — Main river; major sites: Mohenjo-daro, Harappa

2. Ravi River — Eastern tributary; site: Harappa

3. Sutlej River — Eastern tributary; formerly flowed into Ghaggar

4. Ghaggar-Hakra River — Now dry; historical Saraswati River; sites: Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Banawali

5. Bhogava River — Western tributary; site: Lothal

6. Hindon River — Eastern extent; site: Alamgirpur

Distribution and Extent

• Northern boundary: Shortughai (Afghanistan)

• Western boundary: Sutkagan Dor (Iranian border)

• Eastern boundary: Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)

• Southern boundary: Daimabad (Maharashtra)

• Total area: Approximately 1.3 million square kilometers

• Total sites identified: 1,052 settlements

• Excavated sites: ~96 sites

Check other notes: Ancient India