Conquest of Punjab

The Conquest of Punjab by the British

Background and Political Context

Conquest of Punjab: Following the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the Sikh Empire underwent rapid political disintegration characterized by internal conflict, palace revolutions, and assassinations. The succession of the seven-year-old Maharaja Duleep Singh to the throne left the state vulnerable, with real power residing in the hands of military committees (panchs) and competing Sikh nobility. The regent, Rani Jindan (Jind Kaur), the mother of Maharaja Duleep Singh, held nominal authority but faced increasing challenges in maintaining state stability.​

This period of internal chaos alarmed the British East India Company, which had begun to view Punjab as a strategic buffer against perceived threats from the north. The British had already accumulated significant military strength along the Sutlej frontier by 1845, with approximately 32,000 troops positioned to secure their northern possessions. Mutual suspicions between the Sikhs and the British escalated due to their refusal to allow British passage through Punjab during the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-42), with the British employing this as a pretext to claim defensive necessity.​

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)

Immediate Causes and Outbreak

The immediate cause of the conflict emerged from the political turbulence within Punjab. Determined to forestall what they viewed as a potential Sikh threat, the British declared war on 13 December 1845. Under the pretext of preventing a British attack, the Sikh Khalsa Army crossed the Sutlej River in December 1845, thereby invoking the British proclamation that any such crossing would result in the confiscation of Sikh lands east of the Sutlej.​

Major Battles

The First Anglo-Sikh War consisted of four significant engagements, each demonstrating the formidable military capabilities of the Khalsa army, which had been trained along European lines under Ranjit Singh’s leadership:

The Battle of Sobraon deserves particular attention as it was the decisive engagement. The Sikh forces had entrenched themselves on the eastern bank of the Sutlej River, with their retreat secured by a pontoon bridge. After an intense artillery bombardment, the British forces stormed the Sikh entrenchments at multiple points. The bridge subsequently collapsed (with accounts varying on whether due to deliberate sabotage by Tej Singh or the sheer weight of retreating soldiers), transforming the Sikh retreat into a rout. Between 8,000 to 10,000 Sikh soldiers were killed attempting to ford or swim the river, with the British cavalry and horse artillery firing upon them from the riverbanks. The British captured all 67 Sikh guns. Despite the British victory, they suffered 2,283 casualties, including General Sir Robert Dick.​

The British were assisted in their victories by the equivocal conduct of Sikh commanders Tej Singh and Lal Singh, with historical accounts suggesting they may have deliberately weakened Sikh military positions or supplied vital strategic information to the British.​

Treaty of Lahore (9 March 1846)

Following the British victory and the march of British forces into Lahore on 20 February 1846, peace negotiations were conducted by Frederick Currie (assisted by Brevet-Major Henry Lawrence) on the British side, with the Sikh state represented through the minor Maharaja Duleep Singh and seven members of the Sikh nobility.​

The Treaty of Lahore of 9 March 1846 imposed harsh terms on the Sikhs:​

Territorial Cessions: The British annexed all Sikh territories east of the Sutlej River and between the Sutlej and Beas Rivers (the Jullundur Doab), incorporating these regions directly into British India. The Sikh state was reduced to territories west of the Beas River.​

Monetary Indemnity: The Sikhs were required to pay war reparations (indemnity) to the British East India Company as compensation for military expenses.​

Military Limitations: The Sikh army was drastically reduced in size to 20,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry (compared to its earlier strength of approximately 40,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry), and 36 field guns were confiscated.​

Control of Rivers: The British acquired control over the rivers Sutlej, Beas, and part of the Indus, though provisions allowed the Lahore government to maintain passenger boat traffic.​

British Representation: A British Resident was stationed in Lahore with accompanying British troops to oversee the governance of the Sikh state and to protect the minor Maharaja.​

Kashmir and Jammu: The treaty provided for the sale of hilly regions between the Beas and Indus rivers, including Kashmir, though the immediate disposal was deferred.​

Treaty of Bhyrowal (December 1846)

The Treaty of Bhyrowal (also spelled Bharoval), signed on 16 December 1846, fundamentally transformed the remaining Sikh state into a virtual British protectorate. This agreement reaffirmed all articles of the Treaty of Lahore except Article 15, which had precluded British interference in Punjab’s internal administration.​

Key provisions included:​

Regent’s Pension: The Rani Jindan (Jind Kaur) was pensioned off and her authority removed from governance.

British Control: The British Resident was given directive and control authority over the state’s internal and external affairs, functioning as the de facto ruler of Punjab.

New Council of Regency: An eight-member council was established to administer the state under British supervision, with all members serving at the pleasure of the British Resident.

Military Expenditure: The cost of maintaining the British military force in Punjab (22 lakh rupees annually) was borne by the Sikh state, further draining its resources.

Gubernatorial Powers: The Governor-General acquired authority to disband, reorganize, and recruit armies, as well as to occupy any fort in Punjab.

Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846)

Concurrently with the primary peace negotiations, the Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846) formalized separate arrangements regarding Kashmir and Jammu. This treaty was executed between the British East India Company and Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu, who had advantageously sided with the British during the conflict.​

Key Provisions:​

Territory Transfer: Gulab Singh acquired all the hilly and mountainous regions east of the Indus River and west of the Ravi River, including Chamba but excluding Lahul. This territory had been ceded to the British by the Lahore State under the Treaty of Lahore.

Monetary Consideration: Gulab Singh paid 75 lakhs (7.5 million) of Nanak Shahi rupees (the currency of the Sikh Empire) to the British East India Company—50 lakhs at the treaty’s ratification and 25 lakhs by 1 October 1846—along with annual tribute obligations.​

Boundary Fixation: The boundaries of Gulab Singh’s territory were to be defined through separate survey and agreement between appointed British and Dogra commissioners.

Perpetual Subordination: The treaty stipulated that Gulab Singh’s territorial limits could not be altered without British concurrence, effectively placing the Kashmir region under permanent British suzerainty.

This transaction marked the beginning of Dogra rule in Kashmir, establishing what would become the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir as a British-protected vassal state.​

Period of Indirect British Control (1846-1848)

The period following the First Anglo-Sikh War witnessed the establishment of effective British indirect rule over Punjab. The British Resident at Lahore became the virtual administrator of the state, while the Sikh government functioned nominally under the child-Maharaja. British officers were stationed throughout the province, and the reduced Sikh army was placed under increasing British control.​

The British were not satisfied with this arrangement of indirect rule, perceiving it as unsustainable and seeking opportunities for complete annexation. Their opportunity would soon materialize through internal Sikh unrest.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)

Causes of the Second Conflict

The Second Anglo-Sikh War erupted from numerous grievances and destabilizing factors. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Lahore and the subsequent humiliating positions of Sikh leaders created widespread resentment. Particularly provocative was the treatment of Rani Jindan: her jewelry was seized, she was sent into exile at Sheikhpura under surveillance, and her pension was arbitrarily reduced from Rs. 1.5 lakh to Rs. 48,000 annually.​

By 1848, numerous local revolts had erupted throughout Punjab, with two prominent rebellions led by Mulraj at Multan and Sardar Chatter Singh Attariwala near Lahore.​

The Revolt of Mulraj

The immediate trigger for the war emerged in Multan. Diwan Mulraj Chopra, the governor of Multan, had been ordered by the British Resident to resign ostensibly due to an increase in annual revenue under his administration. Upon his refusal to step down, the British appointed a Sikh governor, Sirdar Khan Singh, along with Lieutenant Patrick Vans Agnew, a political agent, to enforce the transfer of power.​

Mulraj rebelled, successfully murdering both English officers sent to take charge of Multan. This incident proved to be the flashpoint for broader resistance. When Sher Singh (a prominent Sikh commander) was sent to suppress the Multan uprising, he defected and joined Mulraj’s rebellion instead. This act of Sher Singh’s defection is considered the immediate cause of the Second Anglo-Sikh War and provided Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, known for his expansionist ideology, the precise opportunity he required to justify the complete annexation of Punjab.​

Within months, the localized rebellion expanded into a general uprising throughout Punjab, marking the transition from regional unrest to a war for Sikh independence.

Major Battles

The Second Anglo-Sikh War featured three major engagements, with Lord Dalhousie personally advancing into Punjab to oversee military operations.​

The Sikhs won the first two battles, demonstrating remarkable resilience despite being outnumbered and exhausted. However, the Battle of Gujrat on 21 February 1849 proved decisive. The British forces achieved a comprehensive victory, breaking Sikh resistance and leading to the surrender of the Sikh army on 13 March 1849 (with accounts also citing 12 March for the Sikh capitulation). The Afghan allies of the Sikhs were driven from India.​

Annexation of Punjab and Formal Incorporation

Following the decisive British victory at Gujrat, the East India Company formally annexed Punjab to the British Empire. The annexation was proclaimed through a durbar declaration on 30 March 1849 and officially completed on 2 April 1849.​

Major Consequences of Annexation:​

The deposed child-Maharaja Duleep Singh was stripped of sovereignty and granted a pension, forcing him to live outside Punjab.

The British acquired the immense wealth of Punjab, including the celebrated Kohinoor diamond.

The Sikh military forces were either disbanded or integrated into the British Indian Army, effectively ending the Sikh Empire’s independence after a century of Sikh political power.

For his role in successfully conquering Punjab, Lord Dalhousie received the gratitude of the British Parliament and was promoted in the peerage, becoming the Marquess of Dalhousie.

Administrative Changes After Conquest

Establishment of the Board of Administration (1849-1853)

The newly annexed province posed significant administrative challenges to the British, particularly given the cultural diversity, military traditions, and the presence of numerous hostile elements opposed to British rule. To address these complexities, Lord Dalhousie established the Board of Administration on 29 March 1849.​

Composition and Structure:​

The Board consisted of three members of equal standing:

Sir Henry Lawrence (President of the Board) – Henry Lawrence had served as British Resident at Lahore since 1846 and possessed extensive knowledge of Punjab and popularity among Sikh chieftains. He was placed in charge of military and political affairs.

John Lawrence (Henry’s younger brother) – A staunch supporter of Lord Dalhousie, John Lawrence was given charge of revenue and financial matters.

Charles Grenville Mansel – Initially responsible for judicial affairs (and later replaced by Montgomery for certain functions).

Support Structure: Below the Board, a group of accomplished officers collectively known as Henry Lawrence’s “Young Men” assisted in the administration of Punjab, providing technical expertise and field-level implementation of policies.​

Administrative Autonomy: Although nominally under the Bengal Presidency, Punjab was administratively independent, with the Board possessing absolute and supreme executive, military, and judicial powers over all provincial matters.​

Challenges Faced by the Board

The Board confronted formidable challenges in consolidating British rule:​

• Restoration of Peace and Law: After the death of Ranjit Singh, Punjab had experienced widespread looting, disturbances, and political instability. Establishing order was the paramount priority.

• Disbanding the Khalsa Army: The reduction and eventual dissolution of the Sikh military had to be managed to prevent armed resistance.

• Disarming the Sikh Population: Confiscation of weapons from the civilian population was systematically undertaken.

• Administrative Reorganization: An entirely new administrative structure had to be created suitable for British colonial governance.

• Revenue Enhancement: The government’s income from Punjab had to be increased to make the province financially productive.

• Frontier Defense: The North-Western frontier required constant vigilance and fortification against external threats.

Policy of Cultural Non-Interference

Despite their authoritarian control, the Board adopted a strict policy of non-interference in religious and cultural matters while consolidating political and economic control. This pragmatic approach helped minimize resistance:​

Sikh aristocrats and nobles were granted patronage and pensions as compensation for their loss of power and territories.

Groups in control of historical and religious places of worship (particularly Gurudwaras) were permitted to continue their custodianship, maintaining an appearance of religious autonomy.

This policy of calculated tolerance helped reconcile the Sikh elite to British rule and proved instrumental in subsequent Sikh recruitment into the British Indian Army.

Administrative Divisions

For administrative efficiency, the Board subdivided Punjab into six principal divisions:​

1. Lahore

2. Multan

3. Leh (Kashmir region)

4. Jhelum

5. Jullundur

6. Ambala

Each division was administered by a British officer responsible for revenue, law and order, and local governance under Board supervision.

Land Revenue and Jagir Policy

A critical administrative challenge involved reforming the land tenure system. Jagirdars (holders of rent-free or revenue-free land grants) had historically been a significant political class in Punjab. The Board implemented policies to restructure this system:​

Reduction of Jagir Privileges: The Board directive stipulated that jagirdars could retain their lands only as “a matter of grace” (temporary grants) rather than as hereditary rights.

Revenue Standardization: Land revenue was assessed on individual villages and tracts to ensure uniform taxation and prevent jagirdars from extracting excessive rents from tenants.

Protection of Cultivators: The policy aimed to ensure that cultivators paid no more than the government’s own revenue demands, thus preventing economic exploitation.

However, significant disagreement emerged between the Lawrence brothers on this issue. Henry Lawrence believed it was politically and morally just to uphold full grants in perpetuity for jagirdars, even those who had opposed the British, viewing this as a means to reconcile the elite. John Lawrence opposed such magnanimity, regarding jagirdars as “parasites” and favoring revenue maximization. Lord Dalhousie sided with John Lawrence’s hardline position, resulting in a drastic reduction of revenue-free land holdings.​

Judicial Administration

The Board assumed responsibility for establishing an efficient judicial system throughout Punjab. Key judicial functions included:​

Appointment of judges and judicial officers throughout the province.

Supervision of court functioning to ensure efficient justice delivery.

Implementation of new legal codes adapted from British common law and adapted to local conditions.

Relations with Princely States

The Board maintained diplomatic relations with the regional rulers who retained nominal autonomy under British suzerainty, including the Maharaja of Kashmir, the Raja of Jammu, and the Nawab of Bahawalpur, ensuring their interests were protected while maintaining British supremacy.​

Transition from Board Administration to Chief Commissioner System (1853)

Dissolution of the Board and Conflict Between the Lawrence Brothers

By 1853, tensions between the Lawrence brothers regarding administrative philosophy had escalated to critical levels. Their fundamental disagreement on policies toward the Sikh elite, landholding classes, and revenue extraction created an untenable situation.​

On 4 February 1853, Lord Dalhousie abolished the Board of Administration. Sir Henry Lawrence was transferred to the Rajputana Agency (where he would later gain prominence during the 1857 Rebellion), while his brother John Lawrence was appointed the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab, consolidating authority under a single administrator.​

Structure of Chief Commissioner Administration

The Chief Commissioner system represented a transition from the collegial board system to more centralized authority. While nominally headed by the Chief Commissioner, the administrative structure included:​

John Lawrence (Chief Commissioner) – Acting as chief executive and commander of the Punjab Frontier Force, John Lawrence possessed far more concentrated authority than any board member had previously held.

Montgomery – Retained charge of judiciary, education, roads, police, and local and municipal administration.

George Edmonstone – Appointed as Financial Commissioner.

These were designated as “principal commissioners” but remained assistants to rather than colleagues with the Chief Commissioner, fundamentally different from the Board’s structure.​

John Lawrence’s Administrative Reforms (1853-1859)

John Lawrence became a dominant figure in Punjab’s development, implementing wide-ranging reforms that transformed the province. By 1859, Punjab officially rose to the full rank of an Indian province with John Lawrence becoming its first Lieutenant Governor.​

Lawrence’s administrative tenure was characterized by pragmatic efficiency and a focus on economic development and security. His reforms included:​

Consolidation of Administration: Lawrence perfected the machinery of every department and systematized administration, bringing unprecedented efficiency.

Agricultural Development: Punjab was gradually transformed into an agricultural hub through scientific approaches to farming.

Infrastructure Development: Extensive roads, bridges, and irrigation systems were constructed to improve communication, commerce, and agricultural productivity.

Population Reconciliation: Lawrence successfully won over the “martial people of the Punjab to such an extent that the province remained loyal during the fateful days of the [1857 Indian Rebellion].” In May 1857, while the rest of India erupted in rebellion, John Lawrence took swift action to disarm potentially mutinous sepoys and redeploy most European troops to the Delhi ridge. He then recruited new regiments of Punjabis to replace depleted forces, with support from surrounding princely states like Jind, Patiala, Nabha, and Kapurthala.​

Military Recruitment: By 1858, an estimated 70,000 additional men had been recruited into the Punjab army and militarized police forces, transforming Punjab into a major source of loyal military manpower for the British Empire.​

Economic and Infrastructure Reforms

Irrigation System Development

Among the most significant British administrative achievements in Punjab was the construction of an extensive modern irrigation system, transforming the region’s agricultural productivity.​

Investment and Scale: The British colonial authorities invested approximately Rs. 5,000,000 in constructing major canal systems.​

Major Canal Projects: The British constructed the Upper Jhelum, Upper Chenab, Lower Chenab, and Upper Bari Doab canals, dramatically expanding cultivable land from the previously underutilized regions of Western Punjab.​

Legislation: The North India Canal and Drainage Act of 1873 vested all irrigation facilities in the government, centralizing water control and removing it from local power elites’ influence.

Agricultural Transformation: The canal systems enabled the cultivation of vast tracts of previously barren or marginal land, transforming Western Punjab into an agricultural granary for British India.

Agricultural and Revenue Reforms

Beyond irrigation, the British implemented systematic agricultural reforms:

Punjab Tenancy Act (1886): This legislation regulated landlord-tenant relationships and provided protections to cultivators against arbitrary eviction or excessive rents.

Land Alienation Act (1901): This act restricted the sale of agricultural land to non-agricultural populations, attempting to preserve landholdings in the hands of traditional farming communities.

Infrastructure Enhancement: Roads, bridges, and later railways were constructed, improving communication and enabling the transport of agricultural produce to markets.

Long-Term Consequences and Legacy

Mutual Respect and Military Integration

The Anglo-Sikh Wars, despite resulting in Punjab’s subjugation, had established mutual respect between the British and Sikhs for each other’s military prowess. This respect translated into a significant policy shift: unlike other conquered Indian populations, Sikhs became heavily recruited into the British Indian Army as valued soldiers, serving not only during the 1857 Rebellion but continuing through various imperial campaigns until Indian independence in 1947.​

Strategic Importance

The conquest of Punjab completed the British dominion over North India, eliminated the last significant independent Indian power capable of challenging British supremacy, and brought the strategic North-Western frontier under direct British control.​

Sikh Resilience and Internal Division

Despite the completeness of British military conquest, the Sikh Wars are significant for demonstrating the resilience of Sikh military forces even when facing superior resources and burdened by internal divisions. The defeats resulted not solely from military inferiority but from internal betrayals, political instability, and deliberate treachery by certain Sikh commanders like Tej Singh and Lal Singh, factors that contributed significantly to Sikh defeat.​

Modern India