Conquest of Sindh
Contents
The Conquest of Sindh by British (1843)
Background and Political Context
The British conquest of Sindh represents one of the most controversial chapters in British colonial expansion in India. During the early 19th century, Sindh was ruled by the Talpur dynasty, a Baloch ruling family that had succeeded the Kalhoras in 1783. The Talpur state was divided into three main branches, each enjoying considerable autonomy: Hyderabad (ruled by the Shahdadani, Chakrani, and other Talpur branches), Khairpur (ruled by the Sohrabani branch), and Mirpur Khas.
The Hyderabad branch operated under a unique system called “Chauyari” (four friends), where senior members of the Talpur family ruled jointly. At the time of British annexation, the principal rulers included Mir Nasir Khan Talpur of Hyderabad, Mir Rustam Khan of Khairpur, and Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur of Mirpur.
Strategic British Interests
The British interest in Sindh was driven by multiple strategic considerations:
Commercial Interests: Control of the Indus River system was crucial for navigation and trade. The Indus provided the most cost-effective and quickest transportation route from Afghanistan to the Arabian Sea, connecting British territories with Central Asia.
Security Concerns: The British feared Russian expansion through Central Asia and Afghanistan into India. Controlling Sindh would create a natural barrier against Russian advance and secure the northwestern frontier of British India.
Afghan Operations: Sindh’s strategic location made it essential as a base for military operations against Afghanistan and Punjab.
Major Treaties Between British and Talpur Amirs
Treaty of Eternal Friendship (1809)
During Lord Minto’s tenure as Governor-General, the British signed the first formal treaty with the Amirs of Sindh on August 22, 1809. Under this treaty:
Eternal friendship was established between the British Government and the Amirs of Sindh
The Amirs agreed not to allow the French to establish settlements in Sindh
A British representative was stationed at Hyderabad
This treaty aimed to prevent French influence in the region during the Napoleonic Wars
Treaty of 1832
Under Governor-General William Bentinck, Colonel Henry Pottinger was sent to negotiate a new treaty with the Talpur Amirs. The Treaty of 1832 included the following provisions:
Free navigation of the Indus River for British commercial vessels was granted
The British received free passage through Sindh territories
Customs duties on goods transported via the Indus were to be regulated
No British military forces were to be stationed in Sindh
No British military supplies or weapons could be transported through the territory
The treaty was designed to open the Indus for commercial navigation, particularly to facilitate trade with Punjab, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.
Tripartite Treaty (1838)
In June 1838, under Lord Auckland’s administration, a tripartite treaty was signed between the British, Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab, and Shah Shuja (the deposed Afghan ruler). This treaty had significant implications for Sindh:
Shah Shuja renounced all his claims over Sindh in exchange for arrears of tribute amounting to Rs 25 lakhs, to be paid by the Amirs
The British were to mediate disputes between the Amirs of Sindh and Ranjit Singh
The treaty allowed British forces to pass through Sindh en route to Afghanistan
For relinquishing claims to Shikarpur, the Lahore Government was to receive Rs 15 lakhs from the levy on the Amirs of Sindh
Treaty of 1839 (Subsidiary Alliance)
Under the threat of superior force, the Amirs were compelled to accept a harsh treaty in 1839:
A British subsidiary force was to be stationed at Shikarpur and Bukkar
The Amirs were required to pay an annual tribute of Rs 3 lakh for the maintenance of Company troops
The Amirs were prohibited from engaging in negotiations with foreign states without British knowledge
Karachi was to be surrendered to provide storage facilities for British military supplies
All tolls on the Indus River were to be abolished
The article in the 1832 treaty restricting movement of British troops in Sindh was abrogated
The Amirs were obligated to furnish auxiliary forces for the British-Afghan War if requested
This treaty effectively established a subsidiary alliance, bringing Sindh under complete British domination.
Treaty of 1843
After the First Anglo-Afghan War, Lord Ellenborough dispatched Sir James Outram to negotiate yet another treaty in early 1843:
The Amirs were required to cede strategic provinces including Karachi, Shikarpur, Subzulkot, and Umerkot as punishment for alleged disloyalty
They had to provide fuel for Company steamers on the Indus
The Amirs were forced to cease minting their own coins, which were now to bear the name of the King of England
100 yards of land on either side of the Indus was to be ceded to the British Government
Political Events Leading to Conquest
The Afghan Connection (1838-1842)
The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) proved to be the catalyst for British annexation of Sindh. The British needed Sindh as a route for their military campaign against Afghanistan. Even before the war began, the British occupied Karachi in February 1839 to facilitate supplies to the Afghan campaign.
The war was fought largely on Sindhi soil, with British troops moving through Sindh territories to reach Afghanistan. Despite their cooperation, the Amirs were not compensated but instead accused of hostility and disloyalty toward the British government.
Internal Divisions Among Talpurs
A critical factor that facilitated British conquest was the disunity among the Talpur chiefs:
Ali Murad’s Betrayal: Ali Murad of Khairpur, involved in a succession dispute with his elder brother Mir Rustam Khan and nephew Mir Nasir Khan, actively collaborated with the British. He repeatedly requested British assistance to capture territories from other Talpur branches and was promised that his wishes would be fulfilled when suitable to British interests.
Lack of Central Command: The three branches of the Talpur dynasty operated independently, with no unified military command or coordination.
Succession Disputes: Internal conflicts over succession, particularly in Khairpur, weakened Talpur unity and provided the British with opportunities for interference.
Appointment of Charles Napier
In August 1842, Lord Ellenborough appointed Major-General Sir Charles Napier as commander in Sindh with full civil and military powers. Napier was given the ostensible mission of assisting the evacuation of British forces from Afghanistan, but his real objective was annexation.
Napier was a veteran of the Peninsular War and had served as governor of Cephalonia in Greece. At 60 years of age, he was ambitious and determined to achieve military glory. He himself acknowledged the dubious morality of his mission, famously writing in his diary: “We have no right to seize Sindh, yet we shall do so, and a very advantageous, useful, humane piece of rascality it will be”.
The Imamgarh Incident
In January 1843, Napier provocatively seized and razed the desert fortress of Imamgarh in Upper Sindh, to which the young Amirs of Khairpur had fled. This deliberate provocation was designed to goad the Talpurs into war.
Attack on British Residency
On February 15, 1843, approximately 8,000 Baluchi warriors attacked the British Residency at Hyderabad. Sir James Outram, the British Resident, barely escaped with his life by taking refuge in a steamer on the Indus River.
The attack occurred because the Talpurs, despite Outram’s genuine attempts to protect their interests, viewed him as complicit in their rapid decline. This attack provided Napier with the perfect pretext for declaring war.
The Wars of Conquest
Battle of Miani (17 February 1843)
The decisive battle occurred at Miani, near the village of Hala and Matiari, close to Hyderabad:
British Forces:
Approximately 2,800 troops (British and Indian sepoys) under General Sir Charles Napier
12 pieces of artillery
Units included soldiers from Bombay, Poona, and Madras
Superior weaponry including muskets, rifles, and modern artillery
Talpur Forces:
Between 20,000 to 22,000 Balochi warriors (though some contemporary Talpur records suggest closer to 8,000-10,000)
Led by Mir Nasir Khan Talpur
Composed mainly of Shahdadani, Chakrani, and Khanani Talpur forces
Armed with archaic weapons including swords, shields, and matchlocks
15 cannons
The Battle:
On February 16, 1843, Napier left Sukkur and advanced toward Hyderabad. On the morning of February 17, at approximately 8:00 AM, both armies faced each other at Miani, on the banks of the Phuleli branch of the Indus River.
Despite being vastly outnumbered, the British forces had several decisive advantages:
Modern weapons and superior firepower
Disciplined military tactics and experienced troops
Effective use of artillery and cavalry
Central command structure
The Talpur forces suffered from critical weaknesses:
Antiquated weapons that were no match for British firearms
Lack of unified command and coordination
Insufficient ammunition supplies
No modern military training
Napier, though 61 years old, personally led his troops into battle, fighting with musket in hand. The battle lasted only a few hours, with savage hand-to-hand combat. The 22nd Cheshire Regiment and the 9th Bengal Cavalry played crucial roles, with the cavalry charge turning the tide of battle.
Casualties:
British: 256-257 killed and wounded (including 19 officers)
Talpur: Approximately 5,000 killed (though subsequent research suggests the number was lower, around 2,000)
Key Talpur commanders Jan Muhammad and Ghulam Shah Talpur were killed, leading to the collapse of resistance. Napier immediately sent a message from the battlefield: “Meeanee. February 17. We have fought a hard battle and won the victory”.
On February 19, 1843, Napier marched into Hyderabad and took possession of the city.
Battle of Hyderabad/Dubbo (24 March 1843)
The remaining Talpur forces, refusing to surrender, made one final attempt to resist British conquest:
British Forces:
Approximately 3,000-6,000 troops under Charles Napier
Strong artillery support
Fresh from victory at Miani
Talpur Forces:
15,000-20,000 warriors under Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur (known as “Sher-e-Sindh” or “Lion of Sindh”) and Hosh Mohammad Sheedi
Gathered at the village of Nareja in Dubbo near Hyderabad
Determined to liberate their homeland from British occupation
The Battle:
On March 22, 1843, Mir Sher Muhammad’s forces attacked the British garrison at Hyderabad. The main battle took place on March 24, 1843, at Dubbo.
The battle lasted approximately three hours. Despite the valiant fighting of the Talpur forces, British military superiority prevailed. During the battle, the brave commander Hosh Mohammad Sheedi was killed, leading to the rout of his forces.
Casualties:
British: 39 dead, 231 wounded
Talpur: Approximately 2,000 killed
With this defeat, Talpur resistance completely collapsed, and Sindh came under British control. Mir Sher Muhammad managed to escape from the battlefield but later surrendered. He was granted a pension and bestowed the honor of ‘KCSI’ (Knight Commander of the Star of India) before his death.
Annexation and Aftermath
Formal Annexation
On March 5, 1843, Lord Ellenborough announced in general orders that from Sukkur to the sea, both banks of the Indus belonged to the British. This proclamation marked the formal annexation of Sindh to British India.
On March 13, 1843, Charles Napier was appointed as the first British Governor of Sindh, a position he held from 1843 to 1847.
The “Peccavi” Message
Napier famously announced his victory with a telegram containing a single Latin word: “Peccavi,” meaning “I have sinned,” which was also a pun on “I have Sindh”. This witty but cynical message captured the moral ambiguity of the conquest.
Rewards and Controversies
Napier received £70,000 as prize money for the conquest. Sir James Outram was awarded £3,000 but returned it to charity, as he considered the war unjust and morally indefensible.
The annexation sparked immediate controversy:
Outram’s Opposition: Sir James Outram bitterly condemned the annexation as “tyrannical—positive robbery” and a breach of faith with the Amirs.
British Public Opinion: The Times of London labeled the affair “riddled with corruption,” while the Bombay Times expressed sorrow for tarnishing the English name.
Parliamentary Criticism: Many in the British Parliament and the Court of Directors of the East India Company condemned the conquest as neither morally nor politically justified.
Lord Ellenborough’s Recall: The controversy was so intense that Governor-General Lord Ellenborough was recalled, though Sindh remained British.
Historical Assessments
Contemporary and later historians have universally condemned the conquest:
Historian K. Ali wrote: “The annexation of Sindh was not morally or politically justified”.
Professor Ramsay Muir stated: “Sindh is the only British acquisition in India of which it may fairly be said that it was not necessitated by circumstances and it was, therefore, an act of aggression”.
Innes observed: “If the Afghan episode is the most disastrous in our annals, that of Sindh is morally even less excusable”.
Fate of the Talpur Rulers
The Talpur Amirs who survived the battles faced different fates:
Most Amirs of Hyderabad and Mirpur were forced into unconditional surrender and exile.
Mir Nasir Khan Talpur, the last Amir of Hyderabad, was deposed and exiled. He died on April 14, 1845.
Mir Ali Murad of Khairpur, who had collaborated with the British, was rewarded. The Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty was allowed to maintain a degree of sovereignty as a princely state under British suzerainty. This state continued until 1947, when it acceded to Pakistan.
Significance and Legacy
The British conquest of Sindh marked several important developments:
First British Territory in Pakistan: Sindh was the first territorial possession by the East India Company in what would become modern-day Pakistan.
Strategic Control: The conquest secured British control over the entire Indus River system, facilitating military operations in Punjab and Afghanistan.
Administrative Integration: In 1847, Sindh was merged with the Bombay Presidency, losing its autonomy for the first time in history.
End of Talpur Rule: The 60-year rule of the Talpur dynasty came to an end, except for the Khairpur branch.
Moral Precedent: The conquest remained a stain on British imperial history, representing one of the most cynical examples of colonial expansion driven purely by strategic interests rather than any legitimate grievance.
The conquest of Sindh demonstrated that British imperial expansion in India was driven primarily by strategic and commercial interests, with treaties and diplomatic relations serving merely as pretexts for territorial aggrandizement. The systematic erosion of Sindhi autonomy through successive treaties, internal manipulation, and finally military conquest became a template for British expansion elsewhere in the subcontinent.
