Conquest of the Marathas by the British
Contents
The Conquest of the Marathas by the British: Struggle with Marathas, Wars, and Administration Changes
Introduction
The British conquest of the Maratha Empire represents one of the most significant military and political transformations in Indian history. Spanning over four decades from 1775 to 1818 through three successive wars, the conquest fundamentally altered the political landscape of India and established British paramountcy over the Indian subcontinent. The struggle against the Marathas was not merely a military conflict but a complex interplay of internal Maratha rivalries, British imperial ambitions, astute diplomacy, and military innovation. By 1818, what had been India’s most powerful indigenous empire was reduced to subordinate princely states under British control, and the stage was set for nearly two centuries of colonial rule.
Part I: First Anglo-Maratha War (17751782)
Background and Succession Crisis
The seeds of the First Anglo-Maratha War were sown in the internal politics of the Maratha Empire following the death of Peshwa Madhavrao I on November 18, 1772. At the age of just 28, Madhavrao died of tuberculosis at the temple premises of Chintamani near Pune. Madhavrao had been one of the greatest Peshwas, credited with resurrecting the Maratha Empire after the devastating defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, when the Marathas lost control of northern and northwestern India to Ahmad Shah Abdali. Madhavrao had systematically recovered territories, defeated rivals like Hyder Ali of Mysore, subjugated Rajput states, and brought back the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to Delhi.
Upon Madhavrao’s death, his younger brother Narayanrao became the Peshwa. However, Narayanrao was merely 15 years old, and real authority lay with the regency and with their ambitious uncle Raghunath Rao (Raghoba), Madhavrao I’s brother. Raghunath Rao had served as regent during Madhavrao I’s minority but had been sidelined as Madhavrao consolidated power. This created deep resentment in Raghunath Rao’s heart.
In August 1773, Narayanrao was murdered in his palace at Shaniwarwada in mysterious circumstances, allegedly with the involvement of Raghunath Rao. This assassination threw the Maratha state into profound chaos and triggered a succession crisis that would reshape Indian history. Narayanrao’s widow, Gangabai, was pregnant at the time and gave birth to a posthumous son named Sawai Madhavrao (Madhavrao II). The infant was born 40 days after his father’s death.
The Regency Council and Nana Phadnavis
Recognizing the vulnerability of an infant Peshwa, the leading Maratha nobles established a regency council known as the Barabhai Council (Council of Twelve) to govern on behalf of Madhavrao II. This council was composed of influential Sardars (generals), including:
Nana Phadnavis (the principal administrator and chief architect of the regency)
Mahadji Shinde (legendary military commander)
Tukojirao Holkar (powerful Maratha chief)
Haripant Phadke
Moroba Phadnis
Sakaram Bapu Bokil
Trimbakraomama Pethe
And other powerful nobles
Nana Phadnavis emerged as the most influential member of the council. Though not a warrior himself, he was instrumental in holding the Maratha Confederacy together during this period of internal instability. Nana’s administrative genius brought prosperity to the Maratha Empire, and his diplomatic skills kept the Marathas away from the growing threat of the British East India Company.
Raghunath Rao’s Ambition and the Treaty of Surat
Raghunath Rao, unable to accept the regency’s decision and deeply resentful of being excluded from power, refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the infant Madhavrao II. Determined to reclaim the Peshwaship for himself, Raghunath secretly began seeking military assistance. In 1775, he entered into negotiations with the British East India Company’s Bombay Presidency.
- On March 6, 1775, the Treaty of Surat was signed between Raghunath Rao and the British East India Company. Under this controversial agreement:
- Raghunath Rao ceded the territories of Salsette Island and Bassein (Vasai) to the British
- He also agreed to surrender part of the revenues from the Surat and Bharuch districts
- In return, the British promised to provide 2,500 soldiers and military support to help Raghunath claim the Peshwaship
The Treaty of Surat represented a fateful turning point. For the first time, British military power directly intervened in Maratha internal politics. The British East India Company saw an opportunity to expand its territorial holdings and influence in western India, particularly to secure the strategically important port of Bombay.
Warren Hastings and the Treaty of Purandhar
However, Warren Hastings, the Governor-General of Bengal, disapproved of the Bombay Presidency’s independent action. Hastings was concerned about British overcommitment and the potential for prolonged conflict. He believed a negotiated settlement with the Maratha regency would be more advantageous than supporting Raghunath Rao’s claim.
In 1776, Hastings sent Colonel Upton to Pune to negotiate with Nana Phadnavis and the regency council. The result was the Treaty of Purandhar (March 1, 1776), which:
- Annulled the earlier Treaty of Surat
- Recognized Madhavrao II as the legitimate Peshwa
- Granted Raghunath Rao a pension and effectively pensioned him off from political power
- Allowed the British to retain Salsette and revenues from Bharuch district
- Extracted a war indemnity from the Marathas
The Treaty of Purandhar appeared to resolve the succession crisis peacefully. However, the Bombay Presidency rejected Hastings’ treaty and continued to support Raghunath Rao. This disagreement between Bengal and Bombay governments led to confusion and conflicting British policies—Bombay provided refuge to Raghunath Rao and continued military operations, while Bengal attempted diplomatic negotiations.
Course of the War: Initial British Successes
The war began in earnest in 1777 when Nana Phadnavis, frustrated by British duplicity and the continued support for Raghunath Rao, granted the French a port on the West coast of India. This move was designed to use the French as a counterweight to British power. The British, viewing this as a threat, dispatched military forces toward Pune.
British military campaigns achieved initial success:
Colonel Goddard, commanding British forces, captured Ahmedabad in February 1779
He subsequently captured Bassein in December 1780, consolidating British control of the coastal areas
Captain Popham led another British column and captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in August 1780, demonstrating British military capability in central India
These early victories suggested that the British possessed superior military organization and firepower compared to the Marathas.
The Battle of Wadgaon (January 1213, 1779): Maratha Victory
However, the tide of the war turned dramatically with the Battle of Wadgaon, one of the most significant Maratha victories of the conflict. This battle demonstrated that despite British military advantages, the Marathas could still achieve impressive tactical victories through superior generalship and strategic planning.
The Strategic Situation:
The British East India Company’s Bombay army, consisting of approximately 3,900 soldiers (including about 600 Europeans and the rest Asian sepoys), was joined by Raghunath Rao’s forces, adding thousands more soldiers. The combined force represented about 4,0005,000 troops, supported by extensive baggage trains and supply lines involving tens of thousands of servants and specialist workers.
The Maratha forces, commanded by the brilliant strategist General Mahadji Shinde and Tukojirao Holkar, numbered approximately 10,000 soldiers but possessed superior knowledge of the terrain and superior cavalry forces.
The Battle Itself:
The British attempted to withdraw from their exposed position at Talegaon, a few miles from Pune. On January 12, 1779, they began a nighttime retreat, but the Marathas attacked, forcing them to halt at the village of Wadgaon (now Vadgaon Maval) in western Maharashtra, about 23 miles from Pune.
The Maratha forces completely surrounded the British army, cutting them off from all directions. British soldiers found themselves trapped, running short of supplies and ammunition, with no possibility of reinforcement. The Maratha cavalry launched ferocious attacks from all sides. According to eyewitness accounts, the Maratha cavalry charged in waves, their horses thundering against British defensive positions.
By January 13, 1779, the British were forced to negotiate surrender terms. On January 16, 1779, the Treaty of Wadgaon was signed, one of the humiliating moments in British military history in India.
Terms of the Treaty of Wadgaon:
All territories acquired by the Bombay Presidency since 1773 were to be relinquished, including Salsette Island
A British force marching from Bengal toward Pune was to be halted
The Marathas received a share of revenues from the Broach district
Essentially, the treaty represented a British strategic defeat
British Rejection and Renewed Commitment
Warren Hastings emphatically rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon. Rather than retreating, Hastings committed additional British forces to the conflict. He dispatched new armies under different commanders:
Colonel Goddard captured Ahmedabad (February 1779) and Bassein (December 1780) with superior forces
Captain Popham captured Gwalior (August 1780) in central India
General Camac defeated Mahadji Shinde at Sipri (February 1781), though not decisively
The war thus transitioned from a Maratha period of dominance to a more balanced conflict. The British demonstrated the ability to recover from setbacks and maintain military pressure through superior organization and logistical capabilities. However, the Marathas continued to mount effective resistance.
Treaty of Salbai (May 17, 1782):
After seven years of inconclusive warfare, both sides recognized the mutual costs of continued conflict. Negotiations between Warren Hastings and Mahadji Shinde produced the Treaty of Salbai, signed on May 17, 1782.
Key Provisions:
Recognition of Madhavrao II as the legitimate Peshwa
British retention of Salsette and Broach (Bharuch)
Return of other conquered territories to the Marathas
Mutual promises of noninterference in each other’s territories
Maratha commitment not to grant territories to the French or other Europeans
Recognition of British involvement in the Carnatic and protection of British interests in southern India
Pension for Raghunath Rao, permanently removing him from political power
Significance:
The Treaty of Salbai established twenty years of relative peace between the British and the Marathas (1782-1802). This peace allowed both powers to consolidate their respective positions. The British used this period to expand in Bengal and the south, while the Marathas attempted to maintain their internal stability. However, the treaty marked a subtle but crucial shift: the British had secured territorial footholds on the west coast and had demonstrated they could sustain military operations in India despite initial setbacks. The treaty confirmed the British as a major political player in Indian politics, not merely a commercial trading company.
The Maratha internal politics during this period were marked by continued instability. Madhavrao II died in 1795, and Baji Rao II became Peshwa. The regency council, which had provided stability, began to fragment after Nana Phadnavis’ death in March 1800.
Part II: Second AngloMaratha War (1803-1805)
Background: Internal Maratha Divisions and Baji Rao II
The Second AngloMaratha War emerged from the internal collapse of Maratha cohesion and the rise of Baji Rao II. Born on January 10, 1775, Baji Rao II was the son of Raghunath Rao (the same Raghunath who had sought British alliance in the First War) and his wife Anandibai.
Baji Rao II’s life had been one of confinement and political marginalization. Until the age of 19, he and his brothers had been imprisoned by the Maratha regency council, denied even basic education and rights. This traumatic upbringing created in him a personality marked by insecurity, duplicity, and a desperate desire for power.
In 1796, Baji Rao II became Peshwa, but only nominally. Real power lay with powerful Maratha nobles and Sardars, particularly:
- Daulat Rao Scindia of Gwalior—the most powerful Maratha chief
- Yashwant Rao Holkar of Indore—ambitious and militarily formidable
- Appa Sahib Bhonsle of Nagpur
- Other influential Sardars and military commanders
Despite his position as Peshwa, Baji Rao II was essentially a puppet ruler, unable to exercise real authority. The Maratha Confederacy consisted of five major power centers:
1. Peshwa at Pune (nominal overall authority but weak)
2. Gaekwad of Baroda (powerful and wealthy)
3. Scindia of Gwalior (most powerful)
4. Holkar of Indore (ambitious and militarily strong)
5. Bhonsle of Nagpur (significant power)
Character of Baji Rao II
Contemporary accounts describe Baji Rao II as “a past master in deceit and intrigue” with a “cruel streak.” Unlike his predecessors, he lacked martial courage or the respect of his nobles. His insecurity manifested in erratic decision making, paranoia, and a tendency toward betrayal. He made enemies easily and was incapable of commanding the unified respect that earlier Peshwas had enjoyed.
Crisis of 1802: Battle of Poona and the Treaty of Bassein
The critical moment came in October 1802. Baji Rao II, in a paranoid move characteristic of his personality, had one of Yashwant Rao Holkar’s relatives executed. This act provoked the enmity of Holkar and led to open conflict between the Peshwa’s forces and Holkar’s army.
At the Battle of Poona (October 1802), the combined armies of Peshwa Baji Rao II and his ally Daulat Rao Scindia were defeated by Yashwant Rao Holkar’s forces. The defeat was devastating. Baji Rao II, finding his position untenable and fearing for his life, fled Pune in panic and sought British protection.
In desperation, Baji Rao II entered into negotiations with the British East India Company. On December 31, 1802, he signed the Treaty of Bassein, one of the most consequential treaties in Indian history, often described as the “death knell of the Maratha Empire.”
Treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802): Terms and Implications
The Treaty of Bassein represented an unprecedented surrender of Maratha sovereignty to British power. It was far harsher than the Treaty of Salbai a quartercentury earlier.
Key Provisions:
1. Subsidiary Force: A permanent British subsidiary force of 6,000 troops would be stationed with the Peshwa at Pune. These troops would remain under British command, though nominally under the Peshwa’s authority.
2. Territorial Cession: Territories yielding 2.6 million rupees in annual revenue were to be ceded to the British East India Company to defray the cost of maintaining the subsidiary force.
3. Exclusive British Alliance: The Peshwa could not make treaties or declare war without British consultation and approval. Foreign relations were to be conducted through British mediation.
4. Exclusion of Europeans: All European nationals (particularly French) were to be excluded from Maratha service or employment.
5. Territorial Renunciation: The Peshwa was forced to renounce claims over territories like Surat and Baroda.
6. Paramountcy: The treaty effectively established British paramountcy over the Maratha Empire. The Peshwa became a British client state rather than an independent ruler.
Maratha Reaction and Causes of War
The other Maratha chiefs viewed the Treaty of Bassein with profound alarm. Daulat Rao Scindia, Yashwant Rao Holkar, and Appa Sahib Bhonsle recognized that the treaty represented the subordination of the entire Maratha Confederacy to British control. They refused to accept this outcome and began military preparations for resistance.
The Second Anglo-Maratha War was thus not initiated by British aggression per se but by Maratha resistance to the treaty. The Maratha chiefs attempted to:
1. Restore Baji Rao II to genuine independent power
2. Overturn the Treaty of Bassein
3. Preserve Maratha independence against British paramountcy
However, their coordination was imperfect, and they were unable to present a united front against the British, partly because:
Yashwant Rao Holkar, having recently defeated Baji Rao II, harbored ambitions to control the Peshwaship himself
Daulat Rao Scindia was weaker militarily and politically than Holkar at this moment
The Peshwa himself, though nominally they were fighting on his behalf, remained under British protection and was reluctant to fully commit to their cause
The Military Campaigns
The British, under the command of Governor-General Lord Wellesley (also known as Lord Mornington), responded swiftly and decisively to Maratha military mobilization. Wellesley was an ardent imperialist who believed in aggressive expansion of British power.
Phase One: Arthur Wellesley’s Campaign Against Scindia and Bhonsle
Major General Arthur Wellesley (later the famous Duke of Wellington) was dispatched with a strong force to confront the combined armies of Daulat Rao Scindia and Appa Sahib Bhonsle of Nagpur.
Battle of Assaye (September 23, 1803): British Triumph
The decisive engagement came at the Battle of Assaye on September 23, 1803, near Assaye in western India.
The Maratha Force:
The combined Maratha army numbered approximately 40,000 soldiers with over 102 pieces of artillery. The force was commanded by Colonel Anthony Pohlmann, a former British officer of German extraction who had entered Maratha service. Pohlmann was an able commander who had received training in European military tactics. The Maratha force was well organized for the time and deployed in European style formations with disciplined infantry and cavalry.
The British Force:
Arthur Wellesley commanded a British force of only approximately 10,000 soldiers (exact numbers disputed, ranging from 7,000 to 10,000). Despite being outnumbered 4 to 1, Wellesley resolved to attack immediately upon encountering the Marathas.
The Battle:
Wellesley’s strategy involved crossing the Kaitna River at a ford to attack the Maratha position. The Maratha army, under Pohlmann’s command, had prepared strong defensive positions and deployed their superior artillery in a formidable line.
The British infantry crossed the river in disciplined columns and advanced against the Maratha positions. The Maratha artillery opened fire, inflicting heavy casualties among the British troops. According to eyewitness accounts, the Maratha artillery was devastating, and at several critical moments, the British appeared to be on the verge of defeat.
However, Wellesley demonstrated exceptional leadership and tactical acumen. He personally led a cavalry charge against the eastern flank of the Maratha position while simultaneously directing renewed infantry attacks against the Maratha center. An officer present wrote: “The General was in the thick of the action the whole time … I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was.” During the battle, Wellesley had two horses shot from under him and mounted a third.
Casualties and Outcome:
The battle resulted in:
Maratha casualties: Approximately 6,000 killed or wounded, all 102 artillery pieces captured
British casualties: 428 killed, 1,138 wounded, 18 missing—a casualty rate of about 17% of Wellesley’s force
Despite his victory, Wellesley was deeply troubled by the heavy British casualties. He remarked that he hoped “I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain.”
However, the victory was absolute. The Maratha army was routed and unable to continue the fight. It was later described as Wellesley’s greatest triumph. Remarkably, decades later, when Wellesley (by then the famous Duke of Wellington) was asked what his finest battle was, he answered: not Waterloo (where he defeated Napoleon), but Assaye.
Battle of Laswari (November 1, 1803): Continued British Success
While Wellesley defeated Scindia and Bhonsle at Assaye, another British force under General Gerard Lake pursued Scindia’s remaining cavalry and infantry forces. At the Battle of Laswari on November 1, 1803, Lake’s forces confronted a Maratha army of 9,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, many trained by French officers.
Lake forced the Marathas into battle after pursuing them relentlessly, covering 68 miles in just 48 hours. In the ensuing engagement, the Maratha infantry fought with exceptional bravery and determination. Lake later wrote in his dispatches: “I never was in so severe a business in my life… these fellows fought like devils, or rather like heroes.”
The British eventually prevailed, capturing 72 guns but suffering significant casualties including Lake’s own son. The battle resulted in approximately 7,000 Maratha casualties, effectively eliminating Scindia’s remaining field army.
Peaceful Resolution and Treaties
Following these military defeats, the Maratha chiefs sued for peace:
Treaty of Deogaon (December 1803): Appa Sahib Bhonsle of Nagpur ceded Cuttack and Balasore provinces to the British
Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (1803): Scindia accepted harsh British terms, ceding significant territories including Gwalior and much of central India
Treaty with Holkar (1805): Yashwant Rao Holkar initially tried to continue resistance but was eventually forced to come to terms
Consequences of the Second Anglo-Maratha War
The Second Anglo-Maratha War fundamentally transformed the political landscape of India:
1. Territorial Conquest: Vast regions around Delhi and present day Gujarat fell into direct British Company rule
2. Maratha Fragmentation: The Maratha Confederacy, already weakened, was further fragmented
3. British Supremacy: The British emerged as the undisputed supreme military and political power in central and western India
4. Peshwa as Puppet: Baji Rao II remained as Peshwa but as an effective puppet under British control
5. Death of Nana Phadnavis: Following his release from imprisonment, Nana Phadnavis died on March 13, 1800, removing the last great Maratha statesman who might have coordinated effective resistance
The war was not a complete British victory in terms of casualties and tactical efficiency, but it was an absolute strategic victory that established the foundation for British paramountcy over India.
Part III: Third Anglo-Maratha War (18171818)
Background: The Pindari Problem and British Expansion
The Third and final AngloMaratha War emerged from multiple factors, with the Pindari issue serving as the immediate catalyst.
Pindaris were essentially light cavalry raiders and mercenaries, drawn from various castes and classes throughout the Deccan. Originally employed as auxiliary forces by Maratha armies during their period of expansion, Pindaris had become somewhat autonomous militias engaged in plunder and brigandage.
Following the Second Anglo-Maratha War and the treaties that followed, many Pindaris found themselves unemployed. Without regular Maratha military employment and payroll, they transitioned into roaming bands of plunderers who raided both Maratha and British territories. They became a destabilizing force throughout central India.
Lord Hastings (Marquess of Hastings, 1st Earl of Moira), the Governor-General from 18131823, held ambitious imperial objectives. He believed that British interests in India required establishment of complete British paramountcy over the entire subcontinent. The Pindari raids provided Hastings with both a pretext and an opportunity to accomplish this objective.
Baji Rao II’s Growing Resentment
Meanwhile, Peshwa Baji Rao II, now in his 40s, had grown increasingly resentful of British control. He remained formally Peshwa but wielded little real power. British residents at his court exercised effective veto over his decisions. The subsidiary alliance meant that Maratha armies were subordinate to British control, and Maratha foreign policy was directed by the Company.
In 1816-1817, Baji Rao II began secretly negotiating with other Maratha chiefs and Indian rulers, attempting to forge an anti-British coalition. He corresponded with:
- Appa Sahib Bhonsle of Nagpur
- Malhar Rao Holkar III of Indore (a young ruler)
- Various other Indian princes
The objective was to simultaneously rebel against British control and reassert Maratha independence.
The Treaty of Poona (June 13, 1817): Humiliation and Resistance
Before the Marathas could launch their rebellion, Lord Hastings preemptively struck. In June 1817, Hastings forced the Peshwa to sign the Treaty of Poona (Treaty of Pune), which imposed even harsher terms than the Treaty of Bassein:
Key Provisions of the Treaty of Poona:
Massive Territorial Cessions: The Peshwa had to cede extensive territories including:
The Konkan (western coastal region)
Bundelkhand (central India)
Malwa (western central India)
Strategic forts and strongholds
Loss of Revenue: Annual revenues from these territories—previously the Peshwa’s income source—were transferred to the British
Dissolution of the Confederacy: The treaty formally dissolved the Maratha Confederacy as a political entity
Peshwa’s Humiliation: Baji Rao II was forced to renounce his claims to Maratha leadership and acknowledge British supremacy
This treaty represented the absolute nadir of Maratha political fortunes. The Peshwa, once a powerful ruler of vast territories, was reduced to a pensioner in his own capital city.
Outbreak of War
The humiliation proved unbearable for Baji Rao II and other Maratha chiefs. In August 1817, Baji Rao II decided to risk everything for one final attempt at independence.
On August 5, 1817, the Peshwa’s forces attacked the British Residency at Pune, the seat of British authority in Maharashtra. This was a bold but desperate move. The attack was unsuccessful, as the Residency was welldefended and British reinforcements were nearby.
Simultaneously, other Maratha chiefs mobilized:
Appa Sahib Bhonsle of Nagpur raised his armies
Malhar Rao Holkar III of Indore mobilized Holkar forces
Various other chieftains prepared for resistance
However, Daulat Rao Scindia of Gwalior, the most powerful Maratha chief, remained neutral—effectively a British victory, as Scindia’s forces were no longer available to the Maratha cause.
Major Battles of the Third Anglo-Maratha War
Battle of Kirkee/Khadki (November 5, 1817): Defeat of Baji Rao II
The first major engagement occurred near Pune between the Peshwa’s forces and a British column commanded by Colonel Burr.
The Forces:
British: 3,000 soldiers with artillery
Peshwa’s Army: 8,000 infantry and 18,000 cavalry under Peshwa Baji Rao II and commander Bapu Gokhale
The Battle:
The Maratha cavalry, numbering 6,000 horsemen, launched massive cavalry charges against the British positions. In traditional Maratha fashion, they relied on cavalry shock tactics and numerical superiority. However, British disciplined formations and effective artillery devastated the cavalry charges.
Outcome:
Maratha Casualties: 500 killed and numerous wounded
British Casualties: 86 killed and wounded—demonstrating superior casualty management
The Peshwa’s forces were routed, and Baji Rao II fled Pune, never to return as an independent ruler.
Battle of Sitabuldi (November 2627, 1817): Resistance in Nagpur
The most dramatic engagement of the war occurred at Sitabuldi Fort in Nagpur, where Appa Sahib Bhonsle commanded approximately 20,000 Maratha warriors against a British force of only 2,000 soldiers under Colonel Prideaux and later reinforced by General Sir John Malcolm.
The Siege:
Sitabuldi consists of two rocky hills near Nagpur. The British held one hill with artillery and disciplined infantry. Appa Sahib’s forces attacked relentlessly for two days (November 2627).
The Maratha assault was fierce and determined. At several points, Appa Sahib’s warriors nearly overwhelmed the British defenders. The fighting was brutal handtohand combat on the hillsides. However, the British artillery, firing from prepared positions and manned by trained gunners, proved devastating against massed Maratha formations.
Outcome:
After two days of intense fighting, Appa Sahib was forced to retreat, leaving approximately 500 casualties on the field. The British losses were significant but far fewer. The defeat was decisive; Appa Sahib was forced to surrender, and Nagpur fell under British control.
Battle of Mahidpur (December 21, 1817): Holkar’s Defeat
The most significant engagement between the Holkars and the British occurred at Mahidpur (near presentday Mhow in Madhya Pradesh) on December 21, 1817.
The Forces:
The Holkar army under the nominal command of young Malhar Rao Holkar III (only 11 years old, with his regent Hari Rao Holkar, age 22, and Bhima Bai Holkar, age 20, making decisions) numbered approximately 15,00020,000 soldiers with 63 pieces of artillery arranged in a formidable defensive line.
The British force under Sir Thomas Hislop numbered approximately 7,00010,000 soldiers with artillery.
The Battle:
The Holkar artillery, commanding the field and deployed in a strong defensive position, initially inflicted severe casualties on the British. At one critical moment in the battle, the British appeared to be on the verge of tactical defeat—casualties were mounting, and British formations were being pushed back.
However, Gafur Khan, a prominent Afghan officer commanding part of the Holkar cavalry, suddenly deserted the Holkar cause and switched his allegiance to the British, bringing his cavalry forces with him. This defection at a critical moment turned the tide of battle.
With Gafur Khan’s cavalry now supporting them, the British counterattacked. The Holkar formations were broken, and their army was routed. The British captured the 63 artillery pieces and inflicted massive casualties.
Outcome:
Holkar Casualties: Estimated at 3,0004,000 killed
British Casualties: Heavy but manageable
The Holkar power was decisively broken. The young Malhar Rao Holkar III sued for peace.
Peshwa Baji Rao II’s Surrender
Following the defeats at Kirkee, Sitabuldi, and the general collapse of Maratha resistance, Peshwa Baji Rao II became a fugitive in his own land. He fled Pune and was pursued relentlessly by British forces under Brigadier Sir John Malcolm.
After months of flight and hiding, with his cause utterly lost and no hope of refuge or continued resistance, Baji Rao II surrendered to Brigadier Malcolm near Asirgadh on June 3, 1818.
Treaties Concluding the War
Treaty of Mandsaur (January 6, 1818): Holkar forces signed this treaty, accepting severe territorial losses and British paramountcy.
Treaty of Poona (June 1818): The Peshwa’s final treaty, formally ending his rule and authority. Under its terms:
Baji Rao II was exiled from Pune
He was transported to Bithur (Bithoor) near Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh, far from his power base in the Deccan
He was granted an annual pension of approximately 80,000 pounds sterling—a substantial sum but a permanent acknowledgment of his complete dependence on British charity
The Peshwaship itself was abolished—no successor would be appointed
Part IV: Administrative Changes After British Conquest
Abolition of the Peshwaship and Dissolution of the Confederacy
The most symbolic and consequential administrative change was the complete abolition of the office of Peshwa in 1818. This office, which had existed for over two centuries and had become synonymous with Maratha political authority, was permanently dissolved.
Historical Significance:
The Peshwaship had evolved from a primarily administrative position (Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire) into the de facto ruling authority of the Maratha Empire. The abolition of the office represented the formal end of Maratha political independence and the elimination of any potential center of native authority that might challenge British rule.
Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa, was never replaced. Instead, his adopted son Nana Sahib was granted only a nominal title without any territorial authority or real power.
Territorial Reorganization
Direct British Administration
The Maratha heartland—the Deccan region including Pune, the surrounding areas, and the Konkan—came under direct British administration. These territories were organized into administrative units known as the Bombay Presidency and later the Central Provinces, governed by British officials appointed by the Company and ultimately responsible to the GovernorGeneral.
The transition to direct rule involved:
Introduction of British Administrative Systems: Revenue collection, law enforcement, and governance were reorganized along British lines
English as the Language of Administration: Though local languages were used for local matters, English became the language of upper administration
British Legal Codes: Britishderived legal codes and court systems were established
Princely States Under British Paramountcy
The major Maratha power centers were reorganized as princely states (zamindaris) under British paramountcy:
The Scindia State (Gwalior):
Daulat Rao Scindia, having remained neutral during the Third War, retained his position as a princely ruler of the Scindia State with its capital at Gwalior. However, he was henceforth subordinate to British authority. His state retained nominal independence in internal affairs but had no independent foreign policy. The subsidiary alliance framework meant that British troops were stationed in his territory at his expense, and British residents at his court exercised considerable influence.
The Holkar State (Indore):
The young Malhar Rao Holkar III retained the Holkar domains as a princely state, though significantly reduced in size due to territorial cessions following the Mahidpur defeat. Like Scindia, the Holkar state was incorporated into the British Indian political system as a subordinate ally.
The Bhonsle State (Nagpur):
Appa Sahib Bhonsle was initially retained as a subsidiary ruler of Nagpur, but his territories were substantially reduced. However, this arrangement was temporary. In 1854, the Nagpur state was annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse, eliminating what remained of native Maratha authority in the Deccan.
The Satara State (Symbolic Concession):
As a symbolic gesture toward Maratha sentiment, the British created a small Satara principality for Pratap Singh, a direct descendant of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. This was politically astute—it acknowledged Maratha claims to legitimacy while ensuring that real power remained with the British. However, this state was also later annexed in 1848 under the Doctrine of Lapse.
The Baroda State (Gaekwad):
The Gaekwads of Baroda, who had maintained a more independent posture, were also incorporated into the subsidiary alliance system. They retained more wealth and prestige than other Maratha princes but remained subordinate to British authority.
The Kolhapur State:
A small Maratha principality that retained local Maratha rulers under British paramountcy.
The Subsidiary Alliance System
The Subsidiary Alliance, initiated by Lord Wellesley in the 1790s and systematized after 1818, became the primary mechanism through which the British exercised control over the former Maratha territories and chiefs.
Key Features:
1. Maintenance of British Troops: Each subsidiary state was required to maintain a permanent British military garrison within its borders. These troops remained under British command.
2. Payment of Subsidiary Costs: The subordinate state had to pay an annual subsidy to maintain these British troops—effectively a permanent tax on sovereignty.
3. Foreign Relations Prohibited: Subordinate states could not conduct independent foreign relations, sign treaties with other states, or declare war without British approval.
4. British Resident at Court: A British Resident, officially an ambassador but practically a supervisor of state affairs, was stationed at each subordinate state’s court.
5. Exclusion of European Nationals: No European nationals could enter the state’s service without British approval.
6. Effective Loss of Military Sovereignty: Native armies were either disbanded or severely limited in size and relegated to policing functions.
7. Internal Autonomy (Nominal): In theory, states retained autonomy over internal administration, but in practice, the British Resident exercised considerable informal influence.
Economic and Social Restructuring
Taxation and Revenue Systems
The British introduced fundamentally new taxation systems in conquered territories:
Land Revenue Systems: British revenue officers conducted extensive surveys (later institutionalized in the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India) and established standardized land revenue systems based on detailed assessment of agricultural potential
Cash Crop Emphasis: British revenue policy encouraged cultivation of cash crops (cotton, indigo, sugarcane) over food crops, a policy that had severe consequences during famines
Revenue Collection: The British emphasized efficient, uniform revenue collection, often using harsh methods against defaulters
Administrative Changes
Bureaucratic Structure: A new British dominated bureaucratic hierarchy was established, with British officials at the higher levels and educated Indians increasingly at subordinate levels
English Education: The British introduced English language education, creating a new class of English educated Indian elites who could serve British administrative purposes
Introduction of English Law: English derived legal codes were introduced, gradually replacing traditional Maratha and Hindu legal systems
Suppression of Native Institutions: Traditional Maratha administrative institutions, training centers, and cultural institutions were either dismantled or subordinated to British control
Disruption of Traditional Social Structures
Destruction of Traditional Elites: The old Maratha aristocracy and military class, which had dominated society, found their roles eliminated or drastically reduced
Displacement of Zamindars and Officers: Maratha revenue officers, fort commanders, military generals, and other traditional elites lost their positions and income sources
Economic Disruption: The traditional economy, which had been oriented toward military expansion and the maintenance of aristocratic courts, was reoriented toward colonial extraction
Military Reorganization
Dismantling of Native Armies
The Maratha armies, which had been among India’s most formidable military forces and had demonstrated significant capability in the Anglo-Maratha Wars, were systematically dismantled:
Cavalry Disbanded: The legendary Maratha cavalry, which had terrorized European armies and neighboring states, was eliminated as an independent force
Infantry Disarmed: Native infantry formations were either disbanded or incorporated into Britishcontrolled regiments as sepoys under British officers
Fort Commanders Removed: Maratha commanders of strategic forts were replaced with British officers or Britishloyal subordinates
Military Culture Suppressed: The Maratha martial tradition and military ethos were suppressed as incompatible with colonial rule
Establishment of British Military Dominance
British Garrison System: British military garrisons were established throughout former Maratha territories, creating a network of military control
Recruitment of Indian Soldiers: Indians were recruited into British controlled regiments as sepoys (infantrymen) under British officers, but never in positions of significant command authority
Military Technology: British military superiority, particularly in artillery and disciplined formation fighting, was maintained through careful control of military technology
British Interpretation: The “Doctrine of Lapse”
Under Lord Dalhousie (GovernorGeneral 1848-1856), the British developed and applied the Doctrine of Lapse, a policy that had profound implications for the remnants of Maratha principalities:
The Doctrine of Lapse stipulated that if a ruling prince died without a male heir, the state would revert to Company control rather than allowing a successor to be adopted or nominated.
Application to Former Maratha States:
- Satara (1848): When the Satara principality’s ruler died, the Doctrine of Lapse was applied, and Satara was annexed directly into British territory
- Jhansi (1853): Similar application, leading to the subsequent revolt of Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi
- Nagpur (1854): The Nagpur state was similarly annexed
These annexations, while accomplished peacefully in administrative terms, generated deep resentment among Indian princes and nobility. The cumulative effect of these policies—the abolition of the Peshwaship, the subordination of formerly independent states, the economic extraction, and the application of the Doctrine of Lapse—created profound discontent that would eventually explode in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Paramountcy and British Supremacy
By 1818-1820, the British had achieved complete paramountcy over India. The Maratha Empire, which had been the dominant indigenous power on the Indian subcontinent and had challenged British expansion for over forty years, was destroyed. The British:
1. Controlled large territories directly through the East India Company’s administration
2. Exercised supremacy over formerly independent states through the subsidiary alliance system
3. Monopolized military power through their army of British officers and Indian sepoys
4. Dominated political decision making through their control of the Governor General’s office and administrative hierarchy
5. Were acknowledged as the paramount power by all remaining Indian rulers
The conquest of the Marathas thus represented the culmination of the British transition from a trading company to a territorial empire. What had begun with the Battle of Plassey in 1757 was now complete: the British had defeated all major indigenous powers and established their dominance over the Indian subcontinent.
Conclusion: Legacy and Significance
The conquest of the Marathas between 1775 and 1818 was a pivotal moment in Indian and world history. It represented:
1. The End of Indigenous Resistance: With the Marathas defeated, no significant indigenous power remained capable of challenging British authority in India
2. The Establishment of Colonial Rule: The administrative apparatus of British colonial rule was established, laying foundations for nearly two centuries of colonial governance
3. Transformation of Indian Society: Indian society was fundamentally transformed through new administrative systems, legal codes, economic relationships, and cultural hierarchies
4. The Consolidation of British Imperial Ambition: The British transition from a commercial company to an imperial power was completed
5. Seeds of Future Rebellion: The harsh policies—particularly the Doctrine of Lapse, economic extraction, and humiliation of Indian princes—generated the resentment that would fuel the Indian Rebellion of 1857
The struggle with the Marathas demonstrated both the capability of Indian military forces (as shown in battles like Wadgaon and Sitabuldi) and the inherent advantages of British discipline, organization, and logistical capability. While individual Marathas often fought with great courage and tactical skill, they ultimately could not overcome the systematic organization, sustained logistical support, and imperial commitment that the British East India Company could muster.
By 1818, India had entered a new era. The Maratha Empire, which had once seemed poised to dominate the subcontinent, was gone. In its place stood a new order—British imperial rule, soon to be consolidated further and eventually to become the British Indian Empire, which would last until 1947 and would profoundly shape the modern world.
