Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants:

Overview and Basic Information

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a multilateral environmental treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from highly toxic chemicals that persist in the environment. The Convention was adopted on May 22, 2001, in Stockholm, Sweden, and entered into force on May 17, 2004.​

India ratified the Stockholm Convention on January 13, 2006, and it came into force on April 12, 2006. As of December 31, 2023, 185 countries have ratified the convention.​

What are Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)?

Persistent Organic Pollutants are a class of highly hazardous chemical substances that exhibit four critical characteristics:​

Defining Characteristics:

• Persistence: Remain intact in the environment for exceptionally long periods (many years)

• Bioaccumulation: Accumulate in living organisms including humans and concentrate at higher levels in the food chain (biomagnification)

• Long-range Environmental Transport (LRET): Distributed widely throughout the environment via natural processes involving soil, water, and air

• Toxicity: Are toxic to both humans and wildlife

Health Effects of POPs Exposure:

POPs exposure can lead to serious health consequences including cancers, birth defects, dysfunctional immune and reproductive systems, damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, increased susceptibility to diseases, interference with normal infant and child development, type 2 diabetes, endometriosis, hepatitis, and cirrhosis.​

Historical Development and Objectives

Why the Convention was Developed:

In the 1980s and early 1990s, increasing scientific evidence demonstrated the dangers of POPs. Between 1995 and 2000, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) launched an international assessment process to address these chemicals. In May 1995, UNEP’s Governing Council adopted decision 18/32, initiating an international assessment of 12 initial POPs, leading to the development of the Stockholm Convention.​

Primary Objectives of the Stockholm Convention:​

• Protect human health and environment from POPs

• Implement control measures for POPs

• Develop and implement action plans for unintentionally produced chemicals

• Develop inventories of chemical stockpiles

• Review and update National Implementation Plans

• Evaluate the effectiveness of implemented measures

The “Dirty Dozen”: Initial POPs

The initial 12 POPs identified and targeted by the Convention, collectively known as the “Dirty Dozen,” are categorized as follows:​

Pesticides (8):

• Aldrin, Chlordane, DDT, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Mirex, Toxaphene

Industrial Chemicals (2):

• Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

Unintentionally Produced By-products (2):

• Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF)

Examples and Uses:

• PCBs: Used in electrical transformers, large capacitors, hydraulic fluids, heat exchange fluids, paint additives, and lubricants

• DDT: Still used to control mosquitoes that carry malaria

• Dioxins: Result from industrial processes and combustion (municipal/medical waste incineration, backyard burning)

Current POPs Listed (Beyond the Dirty Dozen)

Since 2005, the Conference of the Parties (COP) has added 22 additional POPs to the original 12, bringing the total number of regulated chemicals to approximately 34. Recent additions include:​

Pesticides: Chlordecone, Alpha/Beta hexachlorocyclohexane, Lindane, Pentachlorobenzene, Technical endosulfan

Industrial Chemicals: Hexabromobiphenyl, Bromodiphenyl ethers (various), Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), Chlorpyrifos

Flame Retardants & Others: Decabromodiphenyl ether, Hexabromocyclododecane, UV filters (UV-328)

Organizational Structure and Mechanism

Key Bodies:

1. Conference of the Parties (COP): The governing body composed of all member states; meets biennially to make decisions on convention implementation

2. Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC): Established in 2005 at COP1, comprises 31 government-designated experts who evaluate and recommend new chemicals for listing​

3. UN Environment Programme (UNEP): Manages the convention with its Secretariat based in Geneva, Switzerland

Implementation Support:

• Global Environment Facility (GEF): Designated as the interim financial mechanism providing funds for convention implementation​

• United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO): Assists developing nations and economies in transition​

The Three-Step POPRC Review Process

The POPRC follows a structured, multi-stage procedure to evaluate chemicals for listing:​

Stage 1 – Screening Criteria (Annex D):

• Any party may nominate a chemical for evaluation

• POPRC assesses whether the substance fulfills criteria regarding:

  • Persistence in the environment

  • Bioaccumulation potential

  • Capability for long-range environmental transport

  • Adverse effects on human health or environment

• Typically takes one year; longer if additional information is needed

Stage 2 – Risk Profile (Annex E):

• POPRC invites parties and observers to submit relevant information

• Develops a comprehensive risk profile

• Evaluates whether global action is warranted based on long-range environmental transport leading to significant adverse effects

Stage 3 – Risk Management Evaluation (Annex F):

• POPRC invites parties and observers to submit socio-economic information

• Develops a risk management evaluation considering:

  • Availability of alternatives

  • Affordability of alternatives

  • Efficacy of alternatives

  • Socio-economic implications of control measures

• POPRC recommends whether to list and specify control measures

COP Decision:

• The Conference of the Parties makes final decisions on listing, considering POPRC recommendations and exercising the precautionary principle

• Specifies which Annex the chemical will be listed under and applicable control measures

Classification and Control Measures: The Three Annexes

Chemicals under the Stockholm Convention are classified into three annexes with different control requirements:​

Annex A – Elimination:

• Parties must take measures to eliminate production and use of listed chemicals

• Examples: Aldrin, Chlordane, Dieldrin, Heptachlor, Lindane, Chlordecone

• Specific exemptions are available for certain chemicals and registered uses, documented in Annex A

• Special rules apply to PCBs

Annex B – Restriction:

• Parties must restrict production and use in light of acceptable purposes and specific exemptions

• Example: DDT (allowed for disease vector control, particularly malaria), PFOS (certain industrial uses)

• Restrictions are tailored to minimize harm while permitting critical uses

Annex C – Unintentional Production:

• Parties must minimize unintentional releases with the goal of elimination

• Applies to chemicals produced accidentally during combustion and industrial processes

• Examples: Dioxins, Furans, Hexachlorobenzene (HCB)

• Focus on reducing emissions through process optimization and waste management

Convention Provisions and Obligations

Under the Stockholm Convention, parties must undertake various measures:​

Production and Use Control:

• Eliminate or restrict the production, importation, and use of POPs

• Prohibit the export of listed POPs (with specific conditions)

• Undertake measures to reduce concentration of POPs in the environment

Lifecycle Management:

• Develop strategies for managing POPs in:

  • Stockpiles and reserves

  • Products containing POPs

  • Articles in use

  • Waste (including obsolete stocks)

Information and Awareness:

• Provide information about POPs and their effects

• Promote public awareness and participation

• Facilitate technical information exchange between parties

Research and Monitoring:

• Conduct research on POPs effects

• Establish monitoring programs

• Identify areas contaminated with POPs

• Share data and monitoring information

Financial and Technical Assistance:

• Developed countries must provide financial resources and technical assistance to developing countries and countries with economies in transition

• Access Global Environment Facility (GEF) funding for implementation

National Implementation Plans (NIP)

Each party to the Stockholm Convention must develop a National Implementation Plan (NIP) that:​

• Identifies existing and potential sources of POPs

• Assesses current management of POPs

• Sets priorities for implementation

• Defines strategies and measures to reduce or eliminate POPs

• Identifies capacity-building needs

• Outlines a timeline for implementation

India prepared its first National Implementation Plan and is in the process of updating it as new POPs are ratified.

India’s Status and Position

Ratification and Current Status:​

• India ratified the Stockholm Convention on January 13, 2006

• India had adopted an “opt-out” position under Article 25(4) of the Convention, meaning amendments to Annexes cannot be enforced unless explicitly ratified

• The Union Cabinet, in October 2020, approved ratification of 7 additional POPs listed under the Convention

The Seven POPs Ratified by India (2020):​

1. Chlordecone (pesticide)

2. Hexabromobiphenyl (industrial chemical/flame retardant)

3. Hexabromodiphenyl ether and Heptabromodiphenyl ether (c-octaBDE) – flame retardant

4. Tetrabromodiphenyl ether and Pentabromodiphenyl ether (c-pentaBDE) – flame retardant

5. Pentachlorobenzene – industrial chemical

6. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) – flame retardant

7. Hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) – industrial chemical/by-product

Why the Delayed Ratification?

India maintained an opt-out position to preserve policy flexibility for domestic regulation. However, the 2020 ratification demonstrates India’s commitment to international environmental obligations and enables access to Global Environment Facility (GEF) financial resources for implementation.​

India’s Regulatory Framework:

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change notified the Persistent Organic Pollutants (Prohibition and Restrictions) Rules, 2018, which regulate manufacture, trade, use, import, and export of designated POPs domestically. These domestic regulations preceded formal ratification of amendments to the Stockholm Convention.​

Contested Issue – Chlorpyrifos:

India has opposed the inclusion of Chlorpyrifos, a widely used insecticide for agricultural purposes, in the list of POPs for global phase-out. This reflects India’s concern for agricultural productivity and the pesticide’s continued utility in Indian farming despite its listing as a POP for global elimination.​

Global Impact and Implementation

Parties to the Convention: 185 countries as of December 2023​

Regional Support:

India hosts the Stockholm Convention Regional Centre (SCRC) through CSIR-NEERI, established in September 2010 and endorsed by COP-5 in 2011. SCRC-India serves ten Asian countries (Bangladesh, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, UAE, and Vietnam) by providing:​

• Technical assistance and capacity building

• Technology transfer related to POPs

• Support for monitoring and assessment of POPs

• Assistance in identifying and managing POPs-contaminated sites

• Support in fulfilling Stockholm Convention obligations

Environmental and Health Significance

Global Perspective:

Because POPs exhibit long-range environmental transport properties, no single government can protect its citizens or environment from POPs acting alone. This global nature necessitated the international treaty approach. POPs generated in one country affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and released, making them truly transnational pollutants.​

Bioaccumulation Through Food Chain:

When humans consume POPs-contaminated foods, POPs accumulate in fatty tissue. Mothers pass on POPs from their bodies to offspring through breast milk. In India, studies indicate that the average daily intake of aldrin and its byproduct dieldrin is approximately 19 micrograms per person.​

Check : ENVIRONMENT NOTES