MAHAJANAPADAS: EMERGENCE, FEATURES, AND THE RISE OF MAGADHA

MAHAJANAPADAS:

INTRODUCTION

The Mahajanapadas represented a crucial phase in ancient Indian history, marking the transition from tribal settlements to organized territorial states during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. This period witnessed the Second Urbanization of India (after the Harappan Civilization), political centralization, economic prosperity, and the emergence of major religious movements that shaped Indian civilization. The term “Mahajanapada” literally means “great kingdoms,” distinguishing them from smaller Janapadas of the earlier Vedic period.

EMERGENCE OF MAHAJANAPADAS

Timeline and Context

• Period: 600-300 BCE (6th to 4th centuries BCE)

• Transition: From tribal political organization (Janapadas) to organized kingdoms (Mahajanapadas)

• Sources: Anguttara Nikaya (Buddhist text), Bhagavati Sutra (Jain text), Atharva Veda

Factors Leading to Emergence

1. Agricultural Development

• Use of iron ploughshares increased agricultural productivity significantly

• Transplantation of paddy enhanced yields considerably

• Fertile alluvial plains, particularly in the Ganga-Yamuna region, supported surplus production

• Abundant harvests of rice, wheat, barley, pulses, and sugarcane

2. Iron Technology

• Iron mines available in Jharkhand (Mayurbhanj, Singhbhum) and eastern Madhya Pradesh

• Iron tools revolutionized forest clearing and land cultivation

• Iron weapons strengthened the warrior (Kshatriya) class and territorial expansion capabilities

3. Trade and Urbanization

• Establishment of trade routes connecting different regions

• Development of marketplaces and commercial centers

• Rise of merchant class (Vaishyas)

• Confluence of rivers (Ganga, Son, Gandak, etc.) facilitated water-based trade and transportation

4. Political Changes

• Shift from clan-based governance to defined territorial administration

• Establishment of capitals, fortifications, and administrative hierarchies

• Development of standing armies

• Implementation of systematic taxation

5. Geographical Advantages

• Indo-Gangetic plains provided fertile, defensible territory

• River systems enabled communication, trade, and transportation

• Natural resources in proximity (timber, minerals, elephants)

LIST OF 16 MAHAJANAPADAS WITH CAPITALS AND MODERN LOCATIONS

FEATURES, CHARACTERISTICS, AND GOVERNANCE OF MAHAJANAPADAS

General Features

Political Organization

• Defined territorial boundaries with fortified capitals

• Centralized administrative systems with appointed officials

• Maintained standing armies (infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants)

• Regular collection of taxes and tributes

Types of Government

1. Monarchical States (Kingdoms): Magadha, Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti, Chedi, Matsya, Surasena, Ashmaka, Gandhara, Kamboja

2. Republican States (Gana-Sangha): Vajji, Malla, Kuru, Panchala, Kamboja, Shakya, Koliyas, and others

Differences Between Kingdoms and Republics

Economic System

Agriculture

• Rice cultivation was dominant in eastern regions

• Wheat, barley, pulses, and sugarcane widely cultivated

• Advanced agricultural techniques: iron ploughshares, paddy transplantation

• Grihapatis (wealthy landlords) employed Dasas (laborers) and Karmakaras (wage workers)

• Kassakas (smaller landowners) formed a significant farmer class

Taxation System

• Bhaga (Share): Tax on agricultural produce, typically 1/6th of the harvest

• Bali (Tribute): Tax based on cultivable land area

• Shulka: Trade tax on goods bought and sold

• Kara: Another form of tax on specific commodities

• Warriors (Kshatriyas) and Priests (Brahmanas) were generally exempt from taxes

• Burden primarily fell on Vaishyas (farmers, merchants), artisans, herders, hunters, and gatherers

Trade and Commerce

• Development of Uttarapatha (Northern trade route) from Afghanistan to Bengal

• Development of Dakshinapatha (Southern route) from north to Deccan

• Port cities like Tamralipti facilitated overseas trade with Southeast Asia

• Trade with regions like Suvarnabhumi (Myanmar/Thailand), Ceylon, and beyond

• Goods traded: spices, pearls, muslin, textiles, precious stones, copper, lapis lazuli, jade, silver

Urbanization

• Emergence of new urban centers as administrative and commercial hubs

• Cities like Ujjaini, Sravasti, Kaushambi, Rajagriha, and Vaishali became major towns

• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery indicates urban elite tableware

• Development of marketplaces and guild systems

• Growth of artisan communities organized into guilds led by headmen

IMPORTANT MAHAJANAPADAS: DETAILED FEATURES

1. MAGADHA (RISE AND DOMINANCE)

Capital: Rajagriha (Girivraja), later Pataliputra

Geographic Advantages

• Located in fertile Ganga plains with abundant alluvial soil

• Strategic position commanding major trade routes

• Access to iron ore deposits in Chota Nagpur

• Surrounded by rivers (Ganga on south, Son on north) providing defensive barriers

• Rich timber resources and elephant-rich forests

Dynasty: Haryanka Dynasty (6th-5th centuries BCE)

Key Rulers and Achievements:

Bimbisara (c. 543-491 BCE)

• Founder of Haryanka dynasty; ascended throne at age 15

• Transformed Magadha into dominant power through military conquests and diplomacy

• Conquest of Anga: Annexed neighboring kingdom; appointed son Ajatashatru as governor

• Established connections with maritime trade through Anga ports

• Used marital alliances with Kosala and Vajji confederacy

• Built Rajagriha as fortified capital protected by five hills (Girivraja—”hill city”)

• Maintained four-tier military: cavalry, infantry, chariots, and elephants

• Established navy after Anga conquest

• Patronized Buddhism and Jainism; Buddha and Mahavira were his contemporaries

• Court included renowned scholar-physicians like Jivaka

Ajatashatru (c. 491-468 BCE)

• Son of Bimbisara; reportedly killed father to usurp throne (though controversial)

• Continued expansionist policies; annexed Anja, Kashi, Kosala, and Vaishali

• Fortified Rajagriha against potential invasions

• Founded Pataliputra as new capital at confluence of Ganga, Son, and Gandak rivers

• Pataliputra functioned as “Jaladurga” (water fort), strategically impregnable

• Convened First Buddhist Council to preserve Buddha’s teachings

• Patronized Buddhist monasteries and stupas

• Strengthened administrative system and standing army

Administrative Features:

• Centralized governance with appointed officers

• Revenue collection systematized through administrators

• Military reorganization with standing armies

• Land revenue as primary income source

• Judicial system for law enforcement and dispute resolution

2. KOSALA

Capitals: Shravasti (primary), Ayodhya (earlier)

Features:

• Eastern Uttar Pradesh region between Rapti River

• King Prasenjit (contemporary of Buddha) was most prominent ruler

• Friendly relations with Buddha despite not embracing Buddhism

• Commercial hub with significant trade activity

• Conflict with Kashi over family disputes with neighboring rulers

3. KASHI

Capital: Varanasi

Features:

• Among the foremost and most dominant Mahajanapadas

• Famous for cotton textiles and horse markets

• Bounded by Varuna River (north) and Assi River (south)

• Cotton textile production was major trade commodity

• Important commercial and religious center

4. ANGA

Capital: Champa

Features:

• East Bihar (Munger and Bhagalpur)

• Located at confluence of Ganga and Champa rivers

• Major trade and commerce hub

• Annexed by Bimbisara; provided maritime trade access

• Important port for Suvarnabhumi (Southeast Asia) trade

5. VATSA (VAMSA)

Capital: Kaushambi

Features:

• Lower Doab (modern Allahabad/Prayagraj region)

• Origins trace to Rig Vedic period; offshoot of Kuru settlement

• Kaushambi served as prosperous trade hub

• King Udayana (6th century BCE ruler): engaged in conflicts with Magadha and Avanti; formed matrimonial alliances

• Important as junction point for trade between south and west

• NBPW pottery and urban development evident

6. AVANTI

Capitals: Ujjaini (Northern capital), Mahishmati (Southern capital)

Features:

• Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh

• Pradyota Dynasty: Founded by Pradyota Mahasena (contemporary of Bimbisara)

• Pradyota described as warrior king who expanded Avanti’s influence

• Attempted invasion of Magadha but was challenged by Ajatashatru’s fortifications

• One of the four most powerful Mahajanapadas

• Later conquered and annexed by Magadha (late 5th century BCE)

• Strategic importance in controlling central India trade

7. PANCHALA

Capitals: Ahichatra (Northern Panchala), Kampilya (Southern Panchala)

Features:

• Ganga-Yamuna Doab region

• Modern northern UP and Uttarakhand

• Divided into North and South divisions

• Last independent ruler Achyuta defeated by Samudragupta (Gupta Empire)

8. VAJJI (VRIJJI) CONFEDERACY

Capital: Vaishali

Features:

• North Bihar region

• Republican state: Confederation of many clans

• Major constituent clans: Lichchavis (capital Vaishali), Videhans (capital Mithila), Jnatrikas (Mahavira’s clan)

• Democratic assembly governance with collective decision-making

• Influential and powerful confederacy; resisted Magadha initially

• Eventually conquered by Ajatashatru of Magadha

• Associated with significant religious figures:

  • Mahavira (24th Tirthankara of Jainism) belonged to Jnatrika clan

  • Second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali

  • Amrapali (courtesan) was famous resident

9. MALLA

Capitals: Kushinara and Pava

Features:

• Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Kushinagar, Deoria, Gorakhpur)

• Republican state: Made up of single clan

• Two Malla republics with uncordial relations

• Buddha spent final days at Kushinara

• After Buddha’s death, both Malla republics fought over his relics

• Eventually annexed by Magadha under Ajatashatru (468 BCE)

• Site of Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana (death)

10. GANDHARA

Capitals: Pushkalavati (Charsadda, first capital), Taxila, Peshawar

Features:

• Modern Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Pakistan region

• Northwestern frontier region

• Taxila University: Famous center of learning established in this region

  • Free education for all (except Chandalas)

  • Scholars like Panini, Chanakya, Nagarjuna studied here

  • Comprehensive curriculum including military arts and sciences

• Prominent urban centers at Taxila and Pushkalavati

• Important junction on trade routes to Central Asia

• Later became provincial capital under Mauryan Empire

11. KAMBOJA

Capital: Rajapura

Features:

• Beyond Gandhara (Afghanistan and NW Pakistan)

• Located on Uttarapatha

• Northwestern Mahajanapada

• Ruler was likely titular head (king consul) rather than absolute monarch

12. SHAKYA REPUBLIC

Capital: Kapilavastu

Features:

• Republic (tribal state)

• Located in foothills, near Himalayas

• Birthplace of Gautama Buddha (563 BCE) at Lumbini gardens

• Ruled by elected chief/raja (Suddhodana)

• Democratic governance system

• Later declined due to conflicts with expanding monarchies

13. OTHER MAHAJANAPADAS

Kuru

• Capital: Indraprastha (near Delhi)

• Modern: Meerut, Delhi, and Haryana

• Mentioned in Mahabharata tradition

Matsya

• Capital: Viratanagara (modern Bairat)

• Modern: Jaipur, Alwar, Bharatpur, Rajasthan

• Retained monarchical system (unlike republican neighbors)

Surasena

• Capital: Mathura

• Modern: Mathura, Western UP

• Junction of Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha

• Inhabited by Vrishnis and Andhakas (Yadu tribes)

Ashmaka (Assaka)

• Capital: Podana/Potali

• Modern: Telangana, Maharashtra, AP (Bodhan/Paithan)

• Only Mahajanapada south of Vindhyas

• Important southern trade center

Chedi

• Capital: Sotthivati (Shuktimatī)

• Modern: Bundelkhand region (Banda, Rewa)

• Central India location

MAGADHA KINGDOM: DETAILED EMERGENCE AND DOMINANCE

Reasons for Magadha’s Rise

1. Geographic Factors

• Fertile Soil: Abundant alluvial plains of Ganga basin supported enormous agricultural surplus

• River System: Location at confluence of major rivers (Ganga, Son, Gandak) provided:

  • Water fort defense (Jala-durga)

  • Internal communication routes

  • Trade monopoly

  • Command over Uttarapatha (north-south communication artery)

2. Economic Resources

• Agricultural Surplus: Heavy rice cultivation sustained large population and armies

• Iron Deposits: Proximity to iron mines (Chota Nagpur, Jharkhand) provided tools and weapons

• Mineral Wealth: Copper and other minerals facilitated trade

• Timber Resources: Abundant forests for construction, shipbuilding, and riverine warfare

• Elephants: Wild elephant herds used in warfare; crucial military advantage

3. Military Advantages

• Iron Weapons: Superior weaponry through access to iron ore

• Large Standing Armies: Could support vast professional armies

• Elephants and Cavalry: Formidable military technology

• Naval Power: Established navy after Anga conquest for riverine dominance

• Fortified Capitals:

  • Rajagriha: Protected by five hills (natural fortification)

  • Pataliputra: Water-surrounded fortress

4. Administrative Innovation

• Political Centralization: Brought territories under single authority

• Bureaucratic System: Appointed officials for revenue, law enforcement, local governance

• Standardized Administration: Created framework for efficient state management

• Tax Collection System: Organized revenue system supported military and infrastructure

5. Trade Control

• Trade Route Monopoly: Controlled Uttarapatha—vital north-south trade artery

• Overseas Trade: Access to Tamralipti port for Southeast Asian commerce

• Trade Intersections: Located at junction of multiple commercial routes

• Economic Revenue: Trade taxes supplemented agricultural revenue

6. Able Leadership

• Strong Rulers: Bimbisara and Ajatashatru provided visionary leadership

• Diplomatic Marriages: Strategic matrimonial alliances reduced external threats

• Military Conquests: Systematic territorial expansion

• Administrative Reforms: Improved state efficiency

7. Religious Patronage

• Buddhism Support: Patronage attracted merit, donations, and religious following

• Monasteries and Stupas: Religious infrastructure integrated state control

• Tax Exemptions: Monks and religious centers supported Magadha’s spiritual authority

• Intellectual Hub: Became center for philosophical and religious discourse

Administration of Magadha

Governance Structure

• Monarchy: King held absolute power as supreme authority

• Ministers and Council: Mantri-Parishad (council of ministers) assisted king

• Regional Governors: Appointed to administer conquered territories

• Capital Administration: Central administration at capital with local officers

Revenue System

• Primary Source: Land revenue from agricultural produce

• Bhaga (Share): Tax on harvest, typically 1/6th of produce

• Regular Taxation: Replaced occasional gifts system with systematic tax collection

• Trade Taxes: Levied on goods and merchandise moving through kingdom

Military Organization

• Standing Army: Professional soldiers divided into four branches:

  • Infantry (foot soldiers)

  • Cavalry (mounted warriors)

  • Chariots (war chariots with warriors)

  • Elephants (war elephants with howdahs)

• Naval Forces: Established after Anga conquest

• Commander System: Military hierarchy with appointed commanders

Judicial System

• Law Enforcement: Appointed officials maintained order

• Dispute Resolution: Court system resolved conflicts

• Property Protection: Legal system protected property rights

• Criminal Justice: Punishment system enforced laws

Occupational Structure

• Grihapatis: Wealthy landlords employing laborers

• Dasas/Karmakaras: Wage laborers and workers

• Kassakas/Krishakas: Smaller landowners

• Artisans: Organized into guild systems

• Merchants: Growing commercial class

Guild System

• Specialization: Crafts organized into specialized guilds

• Leadership: Guilds led by headmen

• Hereditary: Guild positions often passed down through families

• Urban Centers: Artisans and merchants concentrated in cities

Art and Culture of Magadha

Language and Literature

• Magadhi Prakrit: Vernacular language spoken in Magadha

  • Language of Buddha and Mahavira

  • Language of Magadha courts and Mauryan empire

  • Evolved into Eastern Indo-Aryan languages (Bengali, Assamese, Bihari, Odia)

• Pali: Buddhist canonical language, related to but distinct from Magadhi Prakrit

  • Used for Buddhist scriptures and teachings

• Literature: Buddhist and Jain texts preserved and compiled in Magadha

Pottery and Archaeological Evidence

• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW):

  • Glossy, fine pottery indicating urban elite tableware

  • Found in excavations at Rajgir, Pataliputra, and Champa

  • Reflects societal stratification and Brahmanical hegemony

  • Dates to 500-300 BCE during Mahajanapada period peak

• Punch-Marked Coins:

  • Earliest coins made of silver and copper

  • Issued from 6th century BCE

  • Indicate monetary economy development

Architectural Features

• Fortified Cities:

  • Rajagriha with natural hill fortifications

  • Pataliputra with river-based defenses

  • Burnt bricks and ring wells evident from Mauryan period onward

• Religious Architecture (Later period):

  • Buddhist stupas and monasteries

  • Barabar Caves (rock-cut Buddhist caves)

Religious Center

• Center for both Buddhism and Jainism

• Home to Buddha and Mahavira spiritual activities

• Philosophical discourse and debate flourished

EMERGENCE OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Historical Context (6th Century BCE)

The 6th century BCE witnessed unprecedented socio-economic, political, and religious transformation in India. This period coincided with the consolidation of Mahajanapadas and marked a philosophical revolution challenging Vedic orthodoxy.

Socio-Economic and Political Background

Social Conditions

• Expansion of Aryan settlements to eastern regions (Upper Ganga Valley)

• Development of complex society with organized kingdoms and warfare

• Emergence of surplus production enabling leisure and intellectual pursuits

• Growth of merchant class gaining economic power

• Tension between traditional Brahmanical orthodoxy and new social realities

Political Conditions

• Consolidation of Mahajanapadas with centralized authority

• Transition from tribal to state systems

• Territorial wars for expansion and resources

• Patronage of philosophical and religious movements by kings

Economic Development

• Agricultural surplus from fertile Gangetic plains

• Rise of urbanization and market centers

• Emergence of merchant guilds and trade networks

• Creation of new economic classes outside traditional Vedic hierarchy

Causes for Rise of Buddhism and Jainism

1. Reaction Against Vedic Ritualism

• Complex Rituals: Vedic religion had become increasingly ritualistic with elaborate ceremonies

• Expense: Expensive Yajnas (sacrifices) and rituals beyond common people’s means

• Inaccessibility: Complex Vedic language and ritual requirements created barriers

• Meaninglessness: Rituals perceived as lacking genuine spiritual value

2. Critique of Priestly Authority

• Brahmin Monopoly: Brahmin class claimed monopoly on religious knowledge and salvation

• Exploitation: Priests extracted money from people through rituals and ceremonies

• Corruption: Religious exploitation through rites and yajnas condemned

• Challenge to Supremacy: Both religions founded by Kshatriyas (Buddha—Shakya prince, Mahavira—Kshatriya prince), challenging Brahmin spiritual authority

3. Rigid Caste System

• Social Immobility: Varna system prevented movement between social classes

• Exclusion: Lower castes and women excluded from religious knowledge and rituals

• Social Hierarchy: Rigid hierarchy created social injustice and resentment

• Democratic Appeal: New religions promised liberation regardless of birth or caste

4. Philosophical Innovation

• Rational Approach: Both religions emphasized rational inquiry over blind faith

• Alternative Paths: Offered distinct philosophical frameworks to Vedic teachings

• Egalitarian Principles: Promise of salvation open to all (regardless of caste)

• Simple Path: Middle way and simplified path to salvation appealing to masses

5. Merchant Class Support

• Economic Power: Growing merchant class sought religions matching their social status

• Practical Ethics: Buddhism and Jainism offered ethical frameworks for commerce

• Non-Violence: Jainism and Buddhism ethical codes appealed to traders

• Royal Patronage: Merchants and kings became primary patrons

6. Regional Context

• Magadha and Eastern UP: Regions of religious innovation

• Lesser Brahmanical Influence: Eastern regions had weaker Vedic traditions

• Kshatriya Dominance: Warriors and rulers held greater authority than priests

• Fertile Intellectual Climate: Urban centers fostered philosophical debate and innovation

TRADE ROUTES OF MAHAJANAPADA PERIOD

Uttarapatha (Northern Route)

Route: Kabul (Afghanistan) to Chittagong (Bangladesh)
Key Cities: Taxila, Rawalpindi, Amritsar, Delhi, Mathura, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkata

Characteristics:

• Main transcontinental trade artery

• Connected northern India east to west

• Two parts: Northern (Himavatpatha) and Southern sections

• Controlled access to Central Asian trade

• Connected to Silk Route routes toward China

Significance:

• Most vital trade route for ancient India

• Passed through multiple Mahajanapadas (Gandhara, Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Magadha)

• Facilitated north-south trade

• Later controlled by Mauryan Empire

Dakshinapatha (Southern Route)

Route: Northern plains to southern India (Deccan)
Major Cities: Shravasti, Varanasi, Prayag, Chitrakoot, Ujjaini, Pratishthana (Paithan)

Characteristics:

• Connected northern India to Deccan and southern kingdoms

• Passed through Ujjaini, major trading center

• Connected to ports on Arabian coast

• Branched to Tamil countries of Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas

Significance:

• Internal Indian trade artery

• Connected to maritime trade routes

• Facilitated exchange with southern regions

Ports and Maritime Trade

Tamralipti (Modern Tamluk, West Bengal):

• Primary maritime trading port

• Access to Far East trade (Suvarnabhumi, Kambuja Desha, Ceylon)

• Trade with Southeast Asia

• Magadha controlled this crucial port

Coastal Ports:

• Gujarat coast ports

• Connected to Arabian Sea trade

• Facilitated trade with Middle East and beyond

Major Traded Commodities

Exports from India:

• Spices (pepper, cardamom)

• Pearls and precious stones

• Textiles and muslin

• Sandalwood and aromatic goods

• Finished crafts and metalwork

• Agricultural surplus

Imports to India:

• Horses (from Central Asia and Arabia)

• Precious stones (lapis lazuli, jade, etc.)

• Silk (from Silk Route)

• Luxury goods

• Metals and minerals

MATERIAL CULTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGY

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

Characteristics:

• Urban Iron Age pottery (700-200 BCE; peaked 500-300 BCE)

• Glossy, shining surface

• Fine, thin fabric

• Made on fast wheel

• Strikingly lustrous finish

• 90% jet black, brownish-black, bluish-black; 10% other colors

Significance:

• Indicates urban elite status and tableware

• Reflects societal stratification

• Shows Brahmanical hegemony through class divisions

• Found at major Mahajanapada cities: Kaushambi, Ujjaini, Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra

NBPW Sites:

• Taxila, Sravasti, Kaushambi, Varanasi (UP)

• Vaishali, Rajgir, Pataliputra (Bihar)

• Ujjain, Vidisha (MP)

• Delhi, Hastinapur, Mathura, Ayodhya, Ahichatra

Punch-Marked Coins

• Earliest Coins: 6th century BCE from Mahajanapada period

• Material: Silver and copper

• Design: Punched marks on surface (not cast)

• Significance: Indicate development of monetary economy

• Distribution: Found throughout Mahajanapada region

Urban Development Indicators

• Fortifications: Burnt brick walls at major cities

• Ring Wells: Water management systems

• Housing: Evolution from wattle-and-daub to burnt brick construction

• Grid Layouts: Evidence of urban planning at major centers

• Guild Workshops: Artisan areas with specialized production

KEY POINTS

Important Concepts to Remember

1. Second Urbanization: Mahajanapada period marked second major urbanization after IVC

2. Iron Technology: Crucial factor enabling territorial expansion and state formation

3. Republican vs Monarchical: Two distinct governance systems existed; republics eventually fell to monarchies

4. Magadha Dominance: By 4th century BCE, Magadha emerged as supreme power

5. Religious Innovation: Buddhism and Jainism challenged Vedic orthodoxy and gained popular support

6. Trade Integration: Extensive trade networks connected different Mahajanapadas

7. Administrative Centralization: Organized tax collection and bureaucratic systems developed

8. Strategic Capitals:

   • Rajagriha: Natural hill fortifications

   • Pataliputra: Water-surrounded fortress

   • Taxila: Educational center

   • Ujjaini: Trade hub

Common UPSC Questions Pattern

• Names and capitals of 16 Mahajanapadas

• Reasons for Magadha’s rise

• Difference between kingdoms and republics

• Key rulers and their contributions (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Pradyota, etc.)

• Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism

• Five Noble Truths and Eightfold Path (Buddhism)

• Five Mahavratas and Three Jewels (Jainism)

• Trade routes and economic significance

• Administration and taxation systems

• Archaeological evidence (NBPW, coins, etc.)

Timeline

• c. 600 BCE: Emergence of 16 Mahajanapadas

• c. 563 BCE: Birth of Gautama Buddha

• c. 543-491 BCE: Reign of Bimbisara

• c. 491-468 BCE: Reign of Ajatashatru

• 6th-5th centuries BCE: Pradyota Dynasty ruling Avanti

• c. 413-395 BCE: Shishunaga dynasty beginning to challenge Haryanka

• 4th century BCE: Nanda Dynasty emerges as powerful force

• 322 BCE: Mauryan Empire established by Chandragupta Maurya

Read More: Ancient India Notes