THE PANDYAS OF MADURAI

THE PANDYAS OF MADURAI

Introduction

The Pandya dynasty stands as one of the most ancient and enduring Tamil dynasties of South India, ruling intermittently from the Sangam Age (circa 3rd century BCE) until the 16th century CE. With Madurai as their illustrious capital, the Pandyas were among the Muvendars (three crowned kings) along with the Cholas and Cheras, who dominated the political landscape of ancient Tamilakam. The dynasty’s name derives from the Tamil word ‘Pandi’, meaning the bull, symbolizing masculinity, strength, and valor in early Tamil culture. The Pandyas established diplomatic and commercial ties with major civilizations including the Roman Empire, Greece, China, and Ptolemaic Egypt, making them a significant maritime power in the Indian Ocean trade network.​

Historical Evolution

Early Pandyas (Sangam Period)

The earliest references to the Pandya dynasty appear in Emperor Ashoka’s edicts, where they are recognized as a distinct power in Southern India alongside the Cholas and Cheras. During the Sangam Age (circa 300 BCE to 300 CE), the Pandyas initially ruled from Korkai, an ancient port city on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, famous for pearl fishery and chank diving. The capital was later relocated to Kudal (modern Madurai), which became synonymous with Pandyan glory.​

Notable early Pandya rulers included:

• Nediyon and Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi – early kings mentioned in Sangam literature​

• Nedunjeliyan I (circa 180 CE) – a great conqueror contemporary of Chera king Senguttuvan​

• Nedunjeliyan II (circa 210 CE) – defeated the confederacy of Cholas and Cheras at Talaiyalanganam near Tiruvarur and conquered most of the Tamil region. His deeds are described in detail in the Maduraikkanci​

The Sangam literature, particularly works like Maduraikkanci, provides vivid descriptions of Pandyan society, economy, and the prosperity of their capital Madurai.​

The Kalabhra Interregnum

Following the Sangam period, the Pandyas faced decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras, a dynasty that disrupted the traditional Tamil kingdoms between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. This period, often termed the “Kalabhra interregnum,” marked a significant disruption in Pandyan power.​

Medieval Pandyas – The First Revival (6th-10th Century CE)

Kadungon (r. 590-620 CE) revived the Pandya dynasty in the 6th century CE, earning the title ‘Pandyadhiraja’. According to the Velvikudi copper-plate inscription, Kadungon defeated several petty chieftains and liberated the Pandya country from the Kalabhras, described as emerging like a “resplendent sun from the dark clouds of the Kalabhras”. His defeat of the Kalabhras was hailed as the triumph of Shaivism and marked the beginning of a new era in South India.​

Subsequent notable rulers included:

• Maravarman Avani Culamani (620-640 CE) – who took the title of Maravarman and consolidated Pandyan authority​

• Arikesari Maravarman (670-710 CE) – also known as Parankusa, who performed the Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara rituals and expanded Pandyan power substantially with victories over the Cheras, Cholas, and Pallavas​

• Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran (710-735 CE) – asserted Pandyan superiority over Cheras and Cholas, reaching as far as Mangalapuram (modern Mangalore)​

• Srimara Srivallabha (815-862 CE) – constructed numerous tanks, canals, and water reservoirs​

However, under Chola king Parantaka I, the Pandya king Rajasimha II was defeated around 900-920 CE, leading to the decline of the first medieval Pandyan empire and the beginning of Chola dominance.​

Later Pandyas – The Second Revival (12th-14th Century CE)

The Pandyas experienced a remarkable resurgence in the 12th century after the decline of Chola power. This period witnessed the dynasty’s greatest territorial expansion and cultural achievements.

Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I (also known as Sadayavarman Sundara Pandyan, r. 1250-1268 CE) stands as one of the most illustrious Pandyan rulers. His reign marked the zenith of Pandyan imperial power:​

Military Achievements:

• Conquered the Chera kingdom, killing King Viraravi Udaya Marthandavarman​

• Defeated Rajendra Chola III, forcing him to accept Pandyan suzerainty​

• Captured Hoysala territories along the Kaveri River and the fortress of Koppam​

• Defeated the Kadava king Kopperunjinga II and occupied Sendamangalam fortress​

• Invaded Sri Lanka in response to local appeals, a major achievement that brought immense wealth including the tooth relic of Buddha​

• Extended Pandyan territory from Kanyakumari in the south to Nellore and Cuddapah districts in the north​

Cultural Contributions:
Sundara Pandyan used his war treasures to beautify temples across Tamil Nadu. He gold-plated the roofs of the Shiva temple at Chidambaram and Vishnu temple at Srirangam, earning the title “pon veindha perumal” (the king who covered with gold). He also built the East tower of the Madurai Meenakshi Temple and contributed to numerous other temples.​

Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I (1268-1308 CE), son of Sundara Pandyan, presided over the Pandyan empire at its height. The Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited during his reign and described him as the “eldest of five brother kings,” praising the administration and wealth of the Pandyan Empire, particularly the prosperous port city of Kayal. His achievements included:​

• Defeating the Cholas under Rajendra Chola III and Hoysalas under Ramanatha in 1279 CE, ending three centuries of Chola rule​

• Conquering Kerala, Kongu, Cholamandalam, Tondaimandalam, and Sri Lanka​

• Leading expeditions to Sri Lanka that captured the tooth relic of Buddha from the fortress of Yapahuwa​

Decline and Fall

The death of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I in 1308 CE led to a devastating war of succession between his sons Vira Pandya and Sundara Pandya. This internal conflict provided the opportunity for external intervention.​

In 1310-1311 CE, Malik Kafur, the slave-general of Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji, invaded the Pandyan kingdom, taking advantage of the civil war. During March-April 1311, he raided several places including the capital Madurai, massacring civilians and destroying temples. Though unable to make the Pandyan king a tributary, he obtained huge quantities of plunder including elephants, horses, gold, and precious stones. This invasion dealt a severe blow to the Pandyan kingdom from which it never fully recovered.​

The Pandyas lost their capital Madurai to the Madurai Sultanate in 1335 CE. They shifted their capital to Tenkasi and continued to rule the Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Ramanad, and Sivagangai regions. The Madurai Sultanate was replaced by Nayaka governors of Vijayanagara in 1378 CE, who declared independence in 1529 and established the Madurai Nayak dynasty. The Pandyas subsequently became part of the Vijayanagara Empire, marking the end of their independent rule.​

Sources of Information

Literary Sources

Sangam Literature: The primary source for early Pandyan history comes from Sangam literature, particularly:

• Maduraikkanci by Mangudi Maruthanar – provides detailed information about the social and economic life of the Pandya kingdom and the thriving port of Korkai​

• Pattinappalai and Purananuru – contain references to Pandyan kings and battles

• Silappadikaram – mentions Nedunjeliyan and the story of Kovalan’s execution​

Foreign Accounts:

• Megasthenes’ Indica (circa 300 BCE) – mentioned the Pandyan kingdom​

• Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (75 CE) – provides valuable information about trade between India and the Roman Empire​

• Marco Polo’s Travels (13th century) – described the Pandyan kingdom as one of the richest he had seen​

• Amir Khusrau’s Khazainu’l-Futuh – chronicled Malik Kafur’s invasion​

Epigraphical Sources

Copper Plate Inscriptions:

• Velvikudi Copper Plates of Pandya king Nedunjadaiyan Varaguna-Varman I (8th century CE) – provides crucial information about Kadungon’s defeat of the Kalabhras and land restoration to Brahmins​

• Various copper plate grants discovered in Tamil Nadu document land grants, administrative divisions, and royal genealogies​

Stone Inscriptions: Hundreds of stone inscriptions from temples and public places record donations, military victories, administrative orders, and religious patronage by Pandyan rulers.​

Archaeological Evidence

Coins bearing the distinctive double fish emblem (the dynastic symbol of the Pandyas) have been discovered extensively in southern Tamil Nadu and northern Sri Lanka, confirming trade relationships and territorial extent. Early Pandyan coins were copper squares struck with dies featuring five distinct images, often an elephant on one side and a stylized fish on the other. Later coins featured one or two fishes and the Pandyan bull, with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Tamil.​

Political Organization and Administration

Central Administration

The Pandyan administration was monarchical, with a hereditary king as the supreme authority who ruled with considerable discretion. The king’s court consisted of royal officers including ministers, generals, commanders, and accountants. However, the king’s power was restricted by the Aimberunguzhu (Five Great Assemblies) consisting of:​

1. Maasanam – Council of representatives safeguarding people’s rights

2. Paarpar – Priests directing religious ceremonies

3. Maruthar – Physicians attending to health matters

4. Nimithar – Astrologers fixing auspicious times

5. Amaichar – Ministers managing revenue and justice​

Additionally, the Enberaayam (Eight Groups of Attendants) served the king in various capacities.​

Key administrative officials included:

• Uttaramantri – Prime Minister​

• Eluttu Mandapam – Royal Secretariat​

• Yuvaraja – Crown Prince given administrative responsibilities​

• Amatya – Treasurer managing finances​

• Duta – Ambassador for diplomatic relations​

• Maha Samanta – Commander-in-chief of the army​

Military commanders held titles such as Palli Velan, Parantakan Pallivelan, Maran Adittan, and Tennavan Tamizhavel.​

Territorial Divisions

The Pandyan kingdom was called Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam, or Pandynadu. The administrative hierarchy was organized as follows:​

Pandymandalam → Valanadus → Nadus → Kurrams (groups of villages)​

• Koorram – Major administrative unit, sometimes placed under near-sovereign government of senior royal family members or feudatories​

• Mandalam – Provinces

• Nadu – Sub-provinces

• Villages – Basic administrative unit governed by elders almost autonomously​

• Ur – Locality inside a town or village

• Cheri – Neighborhood inside an Ur​

Kings created Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or Chaturvedimangalam with irrigation facilities, given royal names and names of deities.​

Local Administration

Villages had two types of assemblies for local governance:

• Manram or Podiyil – Simple structure around a tree foot in the village center

• Ambalam or Avai – Small building on a raised platform​

These institutions performed judicial, administrative, and financial functions including police duties, dispute settlement, sanitation, land surveys, revenue assessment, and maintenance of roads and irrigation facilities. Only the transmission of locally collected taxes to royal coffers was handled by the king’s revenue officers.​

Judicial System

Justice was administered free of charge by special officers appointed as judges and magistrates, though the king remained the supreme and final arbiter in all civil and criminal cases. Officers appointed as judges were expected to be learned, straightforward, experienced, and aged.​

Civil cases included mortgage, lease, trust property, loans, and breach of contract with no time bar. Criminal offenses included theft, adultery, forgery, and treason. The famous story from Silappadikaram tells of a Pandyan king who died of remorse after realizing his guilt in the unjust execution of Kovalan.​

Revenue System

Main sources of revenue:

• Karai or Irai – Taxes (land tax and income tax equal to one-sixth of income)​

• Tirai – Tributes from feudal subordinates​

• Sungam – Customs duties and tolls at seaports and trunk roads​

• War booty and presents from loyal subjects​

• Pearl diving royalty – One-tenth of total earnings​

Land classifications:

• Salabogam – Land assigned to Brahmins​

• Tattarkani – Land assigned to ironsmiths​

• Taccu-maniyam – Land assigned to carpenters​

• Bhattavriutti – Land donated to Brahmins for education​

Major expenditures:

• Military recruitment and maintenance​

• Gifts to poets and temples​

• Educational and health services​

• Infrastructure (roads and irrigation)​

• Palace household expenses​

Military Organization

The Pandyan army followed the traditional chaturangabala system consisting of:

• Elephant corps – Deployed at front ranks to bulldoze enemy lines and as platforms for archers​

• Cavalry – Mobile strike forces

• Infantry – Multiple regiments with specialized roles

• Navy – For protecting maritime trade routes and coastal defense​

The military was recruited from various sources including:

• Mulappadai – Standing army

• Kulippadai – Cavalry units

• Nattuppadai – Regional militia

• Kattuppadai – Forest troops

• Tunaippadai – Support forces

• Pagaipadai – Garrison troops

• Surrupadai – Hidden reserve forces​

Rulers maintained a regular army and the military achievements of Pandyan kings like Sundara Pandyan I and Kulasekara Pandyan I demonstrate their effective military organization and strategy.​

Economy and Trade

Agriculture

Agriculture formed the backbone of the Pandyan economy. The territory included rocky, hilly regions and mountain ranges except areas fed by rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni. Kings and wealthy individuals constructed extensive irrigation systems including tanks, canals, and water reservoirs to support agriculture.​

Maritime Trade

The Pandyas were a formidable maritime powerhouse with extensive trade networks. Major ports included:​

• Korkai – Early capital and port famous for pearl fishery and chank diving​

• Saliyur – Important trading center​

• Kayal (Kayalpattinam) – The busiest port town under the Pandyas in Thoothukudi district​

• Alagankulam – Trading port​

Trade Routes:

• Inland routes – Cumbum Pass and Thandikudi connecting different parts of the empire​

• Maritime routes – Connecting to the Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, and East Africa​

Major exports:

• Pearls – Korkai was particularly famous for pearl harvesting​

• Spices (pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon)​

• Textiles – Cotton fabrics​

• Precious stones​

• Ivory​

Major imports:

• Horses – Traded extensively according to scholar Wassaff​

• Gold and silver coins from Rome​

• Wine and other luxury goods​

Trade with Romans: The Pandyas actively traded with Roman merchants who utilized monsoon winds to reach Kerala ports. The discovery of large quantities of Roman gold and silver coins from Augustus to Nero in Tamil Nadu testifies to the extent of this trade. The Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians maintained diplomatic relations with the Pandyas.​

Merchant Guilds:

Powerful merchant organizations like Ayyavole, Ainnurruvar, Nanadesis, Nagarattar, Manigramattar, Anjuvanam, Chitrameli Periyanattar, and Valanjiyar played crucial roles in facilitating trade, ensuring smooth transactions, maintaining quality standards, and connecting with foreign traders.​

Currency

The Pandyas used currency to streamline trade. Their coins bore distinctive designs and inscriptions, often featuring the double fish emblem. The use of standardized currency promoted transparency and fairness in commercial exchanges.​

Society and Culture

Social Structure

Pandyan society was organized along the traditional varna system:

• Brahmins – Held considerable influence in religious and administrative matters, received land grants and patronage​

• Kshatriyas – Comprised the ruling family and warriors responsible for governance and military campaigns​

• Vaishyas – Engaged in trade and commerce, contributing significantly to economic prosperity​

• Shudras – Engaged in agriculture and various crafts

The Tamil epic Silappadikaram provides insights into the social norms, with practices like sati, caste distinctions, and idol worship being common. Widows were treated poorly during this period.​

Religious Life

The Pandyas were devout Hindus who adopted Vedic religion and patronized Brahmin priests. They primarily followed:​

• Shaivism – Worship of Lord Shiva was predominant

• Vaishnavism – Worship of Lord Vishnu

Religious practices:

• Kings performed elaborate rituals like Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara​

• Extensive temple patronage with construction and renovation of numerous temples​

• Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and Manaparanan Tirumaligai​

• Pattini cult – Worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife was promoted​

Education and Literacy

The Pandyas actively promoted literacy and education:

• Bhattavriutti lands were donated to Brahmins for educational purposes​

• Tamil Sangams – Three legendary assemblies of Tamil scholars and poets held under Pandyan patronage at Madurai became centers of learning​

• Singers were appointed to recite Bhakti hymns in temples to promote literacy​

• Theatre plays based on religious themes promoted cultural education​

Literature

The Pandyas were great patrons of Tamil literature. They facilitated the compilation of Sangam poems and supported Tamil Sangams. Notable literary contributions include:​

• Sangam anthologies compiled under Pandyan patronage​

• Kings like Kulasekara Pandya composed poems, including Ambikai Malai on Goddess Meenakshi​

• The period witnessed the composition of important Tamil grammatical and literary works​

Art and Architecture

Temple Architecture

Pandyan architecture represents a distinctive style that evolved from rock-cut temples to elaborate structural complexes.​

Rock-Cut Temples (Early Period):

• Featured monolithic vimanas carved from single rocks​

• Notable examples: Thirupparankundram (dedicated to Lord Murugan) and Sittannavasal (famous for 7th-century mural paintings)​

• Cave temples at Kalugumalai and Trichy​

• Dedicated primarily to Lord Shiva and Vishnu​

Structural Temples (Later Period):

• Small stone temples with vimana, mandapa, and sikhara features​

• Temples consisted of Garbagraha (sanctum), ardhamandapa, and mahamandapa​

• Shiva temples had a Nandi in front of the mahamandapa​

• Development of elegant vimanas with finely sculptured idols during the later Pandya period​

• Massive entrance gopurams became a hallmark of South Indian temple architecture​

Architectural Features:

• Towering vimanas (temple towers) and use of granite​

• Elaborate carvings and sculptures adorning temple exteriors and interiors​

• Mandapas (pillared halls) and gopurams (gateway towers)​

• Emphasis on symmetry and geometric precision in layouts​

• Incorporation of water bodies like tanks and wells within temple complexes​

Major Pandyan Temples: 

• Meenakshi Amman Temple, Madurai – The most famous Pandyan temple, originally built by Sadayavarman Kulasekaran I (r. 1190-1216). Sundara Pandyan I built the East tower, and various Pandyan rulers contributed gopurams and mandapams. Known for elaborate gopurams and vibrant sculptures​

• Nellaiappar Temple, Tirunelveli – Famous for musical pillars and expansive courtyards​

• Koodal Azhagar Temple, Madurai – Recognized for layered vimana and celestial carvings​

• Koneswaram Temple, Sri Lanka – Gopuram renovated by Sundara Pandyan I in 1263 CE​

Sculpture and Art

Pandyan sculptures depicted:

• Deities and mythological scenes with remarkable detail​

• Everyday life representations​

• Celestial dancers and divine guardians​

• Techniques included high-relief and low-relief carvings​

• Bronze images of Nataraja (dancing Shiva) and Vishnu avatars regarded as masterpieces​

• Influences from Jain and Buddhist art evident in early sculptures​

Artisan communities and guilds played crucial roles in creating these masterpieces. The Pandyan artistic style influenced subsequent South Indian dynasties including the Cholas and Vijayanagara.​

Cultural Legacy

Royal Emblems and Symbols

The Pandyas used the double fish (twin fish) as their dynastic emblem, which appeared on:

• Royal flags and standards

• Coins – featuring one or two stylized fishes​

• Temple sculptures and inscriptions​

• Official seals for royal authentication​

The fish symbol represented their connection to Lord Vishnu and symbolized their maritime heritage and geographical location near the coast.​

Festivals and Cultural Events

The Pandyan period witnessed:

• Temple festivals with elaborate rituals attracting thousands of devotees​

• Vasanthotsavam (spring festival) celebrated in special mandapams​

• Annual festivities like the Meenakshi Thirukalyanam promoting religious and cultural knowledge​

• Cultural events at temples serving as centers of community life​

Contributions to Tamil Culture

The Pandyas left an indelible mark on Tamil civilization:

• Patronage of Sangam literature – facilitated compilation and preservation of ancient Tamil literary works​

• Tamil language development – supported Tamil as a language of administration and literature​

• Architectural innovations – developed distinctive South Indian temple architecture styles that influenced later dynasties​

• Maritime culture – established Tamil merchants and traders across the Indian Ocean world​

• Religious traditions – promoted Shaivism and Vaishnavism that continue in Tamil Nadu today​

Conclusion

The Pandya dynasty represents one of the most enduring political entities in Indian history, spanning nearly two millennia from the Sangam Age to the medieval period. Their contributions to Tamil literature through Sangam patronage, architectural marvels like the Meenakshi Temple, extensive maritime trade networks connecting India to the Roman world, and sophisticated administrative systems left an indelible legacy on South Indian civilization. 

also read: Early Medieval India