SOUTH AMERICA

SOUTH AMERICA

Introduction

South America is a continent located almost entirely in the Southern Hemisphere and predominantly in the Western Hemisphere. It forms the southern portion of the American landmass.​

Location and Extent

Latitude: 12°N to 55°S
Longitude: 35°W to 81°W
Area: Approximately 17,824,513 sq. km​

The continent extends from Point Gallinas in Colombia (approximately 12°N) in the north to Cape Horn in Chile (approximately 56°S) in the south. The geographical coordinates place South America at approximately 14.6048°S, 59.0625°W.​

Boundaries

• North: Caribbean Sea

• East: Atlantic Ocean

• West: Pacific Ocean

• South: Drake Passage (separating it from Antarctica)​

• Northwest: Connected to North America by the Isthmus of Panama​

Key Geographic Features

• The Equator passes through Ecuador, Colombia, and northern Brazil​

• The Tropic of Capricorn passes through the southern regions of Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, and Chile​

• No other continent except Antarctica penetrates as far south, reaching subantarctic latitudes​

• The continent is compact and roughly triangular in shape, being broad in the north and tapering to Cape Horn in the south​

1. Major Physical Divisions

South America’s topography is often likened to a huge bowl owing to its flat interior almost ringed by tall mountains. The continent consists of three main topographic features:​

1.1 The Andes Mountains (Western Cordilleras)

• The Andes constitute the longest mountain chain in the world, extending approximately 7,000 km (about 5,000 miles) along the entire western edge of the continent​

• Stretches from Venezuela in the north to southern Chile​

• The Andes extend through seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina​

• Contains more than 30 peaks reaching at least 20,000 feet (6,000 m) in elevation, many of which are active volcanoes​

• Mount Aconcagua (6,959 m or 22,831 feet) on the Argentina-Chile border is the highest peak in South America and the highest mountain outside Asia​

• The Ojos del Salado (6,893 m) is the world’s highest active volcano, located on the Chile-Argentina border​

Sub-divisions of the Andes:

• Northern Andes: Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela (separated into three branches)​

• Central Andes: Peru and Bolivia (includes the Altiplano plateau)​

• Southern Andes: Argentina and Chile​

Notable Features:

• Altiplano: A high plateau (average elevation 3,750 m) between the western and eastern ranges of the Andes in Peru and Bolivia, containing Lake Titicaca and Salar de Uyuni​

• Contains major valleys such as the Río Magdalena valley​

• Hosts three of the world’s highest capitals: Bogotá (Colombia), Quito (Ecuador), and La Paz (Bolivia)​

1.2 Central Lowlands

The vast interior plains lie east of the Andes and consist of several major basins:​

a) Amazon Basin

• Covers approximately 7,000,000 sq. km (2,700,000 sq. mi), representing about 35.5% of the South American continent​

• The largest drainage basin in the world​

• Contains the Amazon Rainforest, the world’s largest tropical rainforest covering about 6 million sq. km​

• Extends across eight countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, and French Guiana​

• Characterized by flat terrain with extensive tropical rainforest​

b) Orinoco Basin

• The Orinoco River basin covers approximately 1,000,000 sq. km (390,000 sq. mi)​

• 65% in Venezuela and 35% in Colombia​

• Features vast tropical grasslands called Llanos​

• The unique Casiquiare Canal provides a natural connection between the Orinoco and Amazon basins​

c) Río de la Plata Basin

• Includes the drainage systems of the Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay rivers​

• Contains the fertile Pampas grasslands of Argentina and Uruguay​

• Features the Pantanal, the world’s largest tropical wetland​

d) Gran Chaco

• A vast plain extending across Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, and Brazil​

• Characterized by dry forests and thorn scrub vegetation​

1.3 Eastern Highlands

The eastern highlands consist of two main plateau regions separated by the Amazon River:​

a) Guiana Highlands

• Extends over 1,000 miles from southern Venezuela across Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana to northern Brazil​

• Made up of ancient Precambrian rocks​

• Characterized by flat-topped mountains (tepuis), deep gorges, and tropical rainforests​

• Contains Angel Falls (979 m or 3,212 feet), the world’s highest uninterrupted waterfall​

• Mount Roraima (2,810 m) at the borders of Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela is the highest peak​

b) Brazilian Highlands (Brazilian Plateau)

• Comprises more than half of Brazil’s landmass​

• Average elevation of approximately 1,000 meters (3,300 feet)​

• Located mainly in the states of Minas Gerais, São Paulo, Goiás, and Mato Grosso​

• Characterized by low mountains, hilly uplands, tabular plateaus, and steep cliffs along the east coast​

• Contains the Mato Grosso Plateau and Paraná Plateau​

• Rich in mineral resources​

1.4 Coastal Plains

• Pacific Coastal Plain: Very narrow, much narrower than the Atlantic coast​

• Atlantic Coastal Plain: Broader, especially along Brazil’s eastern coast

• Caribbean Coastal Plain: In Colombia and Venezuela

2. Important Rivers

2.1 Amazon River

• One of the two longest rivers in the world (approximately 6,400 km or 4,000 mi), with ongoing debate about whether it exceeds the Nile​

• Largest river by discharge volume, accounting for about 20% of all fresh water flowing into the world’s oceans​

• Originates in the Andes Mountains of Peru (Marañón and Apurímac rivers)​

• Flows eastward across Brazil and empties into the Atlantic Ocean​

• The basin supports the world’s largest tropical rainforest ecosystem​

2.2 Orinoco River

• Length: approximately 2,140 km (1,330 mi)​

• Fourth largest river by discharge volume (39,000 m³/s at delta)​

• Rises in the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela​

• Flows through Venezuela and Colombia before reaching the Atlantic​

• Major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela​

2.3 Paraná-Paraguay System

• The Paraná River is the second longest river in South America

• Forms part of the Río de la Plata drainage system

• Flows through Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina

• The Paraguay River is a major tributary

• Important for navigation and agriculture in the region​

2.4 São Francisco River

• Major river in eastern Brazil

• Important for irrigation and hydroelectric power

• Flows through semi-arid regions of northeastern Brazil​

2.5 Magdalena River

• Colombia’s principal river

• Flows northward through a major valley in the Andes​

• Important transportation and agricultural corridor

2.6 Uruguay River

• Forms part of the border between Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay

• Tributary of the Río de la Plata system

3. Important Lakes

3.1 Lake Titicaca

• Located on the border between Peru and Bolivia in the Andes Mountains​

• Elevation: 3,812 meters (12,507 feet) above sea level​

• The world’s highest navigable lake (commercially)​

• Largest lake in South America by volume and second largest by surface area​

• Surface area: approximately 8,372 sq. km​

• Contains two sub-basins: Lago Grande (Big Lake) and Lago Pequeño (Little Lake), connected by the Strait of Tiquina​

• Average depth of 140-443 feet depending on the basin​

• Contains 41 islands, some inhabited by Quechua and Aymara-speaking communities​

• More than 3 million years old, classified as one of fewer than 20 “ancient lakes of the world”​

3.2 Lake Maracaibo

• Located in northwestern Venezuela​

• With a surface area of 13,512 sq. km (5,217 sq mi), it is the largest lake by surface area in South America​

• More accurately classified as a semi-enclosed bay or estuary connected to the Gulf of Venezuela by a narrow strait​

• One of the oldest lakes on Earth, formed 36 million years ago during the uplift of the Andes​

• Rich in oil and gas resources; Venezuela’s main oil-producing area​

• Famous for Catatumbo lightning, considered the highest rate of lightning occurrence in the world​

• Contains brackish water​

3.3 Lake Poopó

• Located in Bolivia on the Altiplano

• Shallow, saline lake subject to significant size variations

• Second largest lake in Bolivia

4. Major Deserts

4.1 Atacama Desert

• Located along the Pacific coast in northern Chile​

• Stretches over 1,600 km (1,000 miles) from north to south​

• Covers an area of approximately 105,000-128,000 sq. km​

• The driest non-polar desert in the world​

• Some areas have gone several years without any rainfall​

• Situated between the Andes Mountains to the east and the Chilean Coast Range to the west, creating a two-sided rain shadow effect​

• Aridity caused by the cold Humboldt Current and strong Pacific anticyclone​

• Despite extreme aridity, contains oases, salt flats, active geysers, and high-altitude lagoons​

• Rich in mineral resources, particularly copper, iodine, lithium, and nitrates​

4.2 Patagonian Desert

• Located in eastern Patagonia, Argentina​

• The seventh-largest desert in the world​

• A cold desert with temperatures rarely exceeding 12°C​

• Created by the rain shadow effect of the Andes Mountains​

• Area of approximately 670,000 sq. km

• Characterized by semi-arid shrubland and grassland

4.3 La Tatacoa Desert

• Located in the Huila Department, Colombia​

• Situated in a valley between the central and eastern branches of the Colombian Andes​

• One of the driest areas in Colombia​

4.4 Monte Desert

• Located in central Argentina

• Semi-arid region east of the Andes

• Characterized by scrub vegetation

5. Grasslands

5.1 Pampas

• Temperate grasslands located in Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil​

• Known for extremely fertile soil with short, soft, and nutritious grasses​

• Called the “Granary of South America” due to extensive wheat production​

• Covers approximately 750,000 sq. km​

• Supports major cattle ranching and agricultural activities​

• Humid subtropical climate with moderate rainfall​

5.2 Llanos

• Tropical grasslands in the Orinoco River basin of Venezuela and Colombia​

• Seasonally flooded savanna grasslands​

• Extensive areas flood during the wet season​

• Support diverse wildlife including capybaras, jaguars, and numerous bird species​

5.3 Campos

• Tropical grasslands in the Brazilian Highlands​

• Also called Campos Limpos when referring to clean grasslands without trees​

• Located primarily in southern Brazil​

5.4 Cerrado

• Vast tropical savanna in central Brazil, extending into Bolivia and Paraguay​

• Characterized as shrub savannah with 10-20% shrub cover​

• Rich biodiversity hotspot​

• Much of the area now under agricultural development​

6. Climate

South America features all major climate zones: tropical, subtropical, temperate, and polar.​

6.1 Tropical Climate

• The Equator passes through Ecuador, Colombia, and northern Brazil​

• Equatorial regions experience consistently high temperatures and heavy rainfall throughout the year with no dry season​

• Average annual temperatures in the Amazon Basin oscillate around 27°C (81°F) with low thermal variation and high rainfall​

• Tropical rainforest climate dominates the Amazon Basin and Pacific coast of Colombia​

6.2 Subtropical Climate

• Found in central and southern regions including parts of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern Brazil​

• Features distinct seasons with hot summers and mild winters​

• The Pampas region has a humid subtropical climate with moderate rainfall​

• East-central Brazilian plateau has humid and warm tropical climate​

6.3 Temperate Climate

• Dominates Uruguay, the Pampas of Argentina, and central Chile​

• Southern Chile experiences a Mediterranean oceanic climate with temperate summers and cold winters​

• Winters and summers are milder than in North America due to greater oceanic influence​

6.4 Arid and Semi-Arid Climate

• Atacama Desert experiences extreme aridity, being the driest place on Earth​

• Patagonian Plateau forms a rain shadow desert with low rainfall​

• The Gran Chaco has semi-arid to dry conditions​

6.5 Polar/Cold Climate

• Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip experiences a subpolar oceanic climate​

• Cape Horn sees frequent storms, strong winds, and cold temperatures​

• Barely 7 hours of daylight during June solstice, but almost 18 hours during December solstice​

6.6 Highland Climate

• The Andes exhibit altitudinal climate zones with temperatures decreasing with elevation​

• High Andes areas within the tropics have temperate or cold climates despite equatorial location​

• Altitude plays a crucial role in creating distinct ecosystems at different elevations​

Key Climate Influences:

• Humboldt (Peru) Current: Cold ocean current flowing northward along the western coast, creating arid conditions in coastal Peru and Chile​

• Rain shadow effect: The Andes block moisture from both oceans, creating deserts on the leeward side​

• Amazon Basin: Generates significant rainfall and influences regional climate patterns​

7. Natural Vegetation

South America’s natural vegetation closely follows the continent’s climatic zones.​

7.1 Selvas (Tropical Rainforest)

• Located in the Amazon Basin and other tropical-rainy regions​

• The largest tropical rainforest in the world covering approximately 6 million sq. km​

• Called the “Lungs of the World” due to oxygen production​

• Characterized by dense, multilayered evergreen forest up to 40-50 m tall with emergent trees​

• Important tree families: Annonaceae, Bombacaceae, Burseraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae, Moraceae​

• Also found along the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador and the Atlantic coast of Brazil​

• Receives more than 1,000-3,000 mm of rainfall, with some areas receiving over 8,000 mm​

7.2 Tropical Savannas

• Llanos: Grasslands in the Orinoco basin​

• Campos: Grasslands in the Brazilian Highlands​

• Cerrado: Shrub savannah in central Brazil​

• Characterized by herbaceous vegetation with a dry season greater than 4 months​

7.3 Temperate Grasslands

• Pampas: Fertile grasslands in Argentina and Uruguay​

• Short, nutritious grasses ideal for cattle ranching and wheat cultivation​

7.4 Tropical Deciduous Forests

• Found on the southeastern coast of Brazil​

• Trees shed leaves during the dry season

7.5 Mixed Forests

• Temperate deciduous forests on lower slopes and coniferous forests on higher slopes of the southern Andes​

• Found on the western side of the Andes in Chile​

7.6 Desert and Semi-Desert Vegetation

• Atacama Desert: Hardy, drought-resistant plants adapted to extreme aridity​

• Patagonian Plateau: Scrub vegetation and sparse grassland​

• Gran Chaco: Dry forests and thorn scrub​

7.7 Tundra Vegetation

• Tierra del Fuego: Rocky tundra where tree growth is impossible​

• High Andes: Alpine tundra at high elevations with sparse vegetation​

8. Important Straits, Passages, and Capes

8.1 Strait of Magellan

• Channel linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans​

• Located between mainland South America (Chile) and Tierra del Fuego island​

• Length: 350 miles (560 km), width: 2-20 miles (3-32 km)​

• First navigated by Ferdinand Magellan in 1520​

• Lies entirely within Chilean territorial waters except its easternmost extremity touched by Argentina​

• More sheltered than the Drake Passage but has narrow passages, unpredictable winds, and strong tidal currents​

• Major port: Punta Arenas on the Brunswick Peninsula​

8.2 Drake Passage

• Body of water between Cape Horn (Chile) and the South Shetland Islands (Antarctica)​

• Connects the southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Scotia Sea) with the southeastern Pacific Ocean​

• Extends into the Southern Ocean​

• Named after Sir Francis Drake, though he never actually sailed these waters​

• The shortest route from Antarctica to the rest of the world​

• Open water for hundreds of miles, providing more maneuvering room than other passages​

• Known for extremely hazardous conditions: strong winds (gale-force), large waves, strong currents, and icebergs​

8.3 Beagle Channel

• Named after the ship that carried Charles Darwin during his famous voyage​

• Strait in the Tierra del Fuego archipelago

• Shared by Argentina and Chile​

• Has frequent narrows and unpredictable conditions​

8.4 Cape Horn (Cabo de Hornos)

• Located on Hornos Island in the Hermite Islands group, Tierra del Fuego archipelago, Chile​

• The southernmost headland of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago at approximately 55°58’S​

• Marks the northern boundary of the Drake Passage​

• Marks where the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans meet​

• Rising 1,391 feet (424 m) above water​

• First rounded in 1616 by Dutch navigators Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire, named after the Dutch city of Hoorn​

• Historically a major milestone on the clipper route before the Panama Canal (1914)​

• Waters are particularly hazardous due to powerful winds, large waves, strong currents, and icebergs​

• Although not the most southerly point of South America (which is Águila Islet), it is the most significant maritime landmark​

8.5 Cape Froward

• The southernmost point of mainland South America

• Located on the Brunswick Peninsula in Chile

• Marks a turning point in the Strait of Magellan​

9. Important Islands and Archipelagos

9.1 Tierra del Fuego

• Archipelago at the southernmost tip of South America, across the Strait of Magellan​

• Name means “Land of Fire” in Spanish, named by Ferdinand Magellan in 1520 after seeing fires lit by Indigenous people​

• Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego is the largest island in South America with an area of 47,992 sq. km (18,530 sq. mi)​

• The archipelago is divided between Chile (western two-thirds) and Argentina (eastern portion)​

• Ushuaia (Argentina) claims to be the world’s southernmost city​

• Includes Cape Horn and Diego Ramírez Islands​

• Characterized by rugged landscapes, snow-capped mountains, fjords, and windswept plains​

• Climate: Subpolar oceanic with cool temperatures year-round, strong winds, and frequent precipitation​

• Economy based on petroleum extraction (north), tourism, manufacturing, and Antarctic logistics (south)​

9.2 Galápagos Islands

• Located in the Pacific Ocean, approximately 1,000 km west of Ecuador​

• Belongs to Ecuador

• Volcanic archipelago famous for unique wildlife that inspired Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution​

• UNESCO World Heritage Site

9.3 Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)

• Located in the South Atlantic Ocean, approximately 480 km east of Argentina​

• British Overseas Territory, though claimed by Argentina​

• Rich cultural history and important for wildlife​

9.4 Juan Fernández Islands

• Located approximately 670 km (400 miles) west of Chile in the South Pacific Ocean​

• Administratively part of Chile​

• Consists of three main islands: Robinson Crusoe, Alejandro Selkirk, and Santa Clara​

• Robinson Crusoe Island (47.9 sq. km) is closest to the mainland​

• Alejandro Selkirk Island (49.5 sq. km) is the largest, located 180 km farther west​

• Cerro de Los Inocentes (1,268 m) on Alejandro Selkirk is the highest point​

• Famous for being the home of marooned sailor Alexander Selkirk (1704-1709), whose story inspired Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe​

• UNESCO Biosphere Reserve

• Main settlement: San Juan Bautista at Cumberland Bay​

• Economy based on lobster fishing and tourism​

9.5 Chiloé Island

• Second largest island in South America (after Tierra del Fuego)

• Located in southern Chile

• Known for its distinctive wooden churches and unique culture

9.6 Marajo Island

• Located at the mouth of the Amazon River in Brazil

• One of the world’s largest river islands

• Features seasonal flooding and unique ecosystems​

10. Countries and Population

South America comprises 12 independent countries plus French Guiana (an overseas department of France) and the Falkland Islands (British Overseas Territory).​

10.1 Countries by Population (2023-2024 estimates)

10.2 Population Statistics

• Total Population: Approximately 438-440 million (2025)​

• Brazil alone holds nearly 49% of the continent’s population​

• Average Population Density: Approximately 25 people per sq. km​

10.3 Population Density by Country (2021)

10.4 Major Cities

Largest Metropolitan Areas:

1. São Paulo (Brazil) – 11.9 million

2. Lima (Peru) – 10.1 million

3. Bogotá (Colombia) – 7.9 million

4. Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) – 6.7 million

5. Santiago (Chile) – 6.3 million

6. Buenos Aires (Argentina) – 3.1 million (city proper; metropolitan area much larger)

7. Brasília (Brazil) – 3.0 million

8. Caracas (Venezuela) – 3.3 million

10.5 Regional Divisions

South America can be divided into several cultural and geographic regions:

Northern South America

• Venezuela, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana

• Characterized by Caribbean influence and tropical climate

Andean Countries

• Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia

• High indigenous population and Andean culture

• Rich mineral resources​

Southern Cone

• Argentina, Chile, Uruguay (core members)​

• Sometimes includes Paraguay and southern Brazil​

• Located mostly south of the Tropic of Capricorn​

• More moderate climate with European cultural influence​

• Highest Human Development Index in South America​

• Member of Mercosur trade bloc​

Brazil

• Often considered separately due to its size and Portuguese-speaking culture

• Dominant economy in the region​

11. Agriculture and Natural Resources

11.1 Major Agricultural Crops

Coffee

• Brazil is the world’s leading producer and exporter of coffee​​

• Also produced in Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, and other Andean countries​

• Coffee belt located primarily between the Equator and Tropic of Capricorn​

• In Brazil, production concentrated in eastern states like São Paulo, Minas Gerais, and Espírito Santo​

Soybeans

• Brazil and Argentina are among the world’s top producers​​

• Brazil’s soybean exports valued at US$19 billion, representing 10.4% of total exports​

• Argentina’s soybean exports valued at US$3.23 billion, representing 5.7% of exports​

• Argentina’s soybean meal exports represent 17.5% of total exports (US$9.96 billion)​

• Major growing regions: Mato Grosso (Brazil), Pampas (Argentina)​

Wheat

• Major producers: Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay​​

• Argentina’s La Plata region (Paraná and Uruguay river delta) is the highest wheat-producing region in South America​

• Brazil’s production concentrated in southern states: Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, Santa Catarina​

• The Pampas grasslands are ideal for wheat cultivation​

Corn (Maize)

• Important crop in Brazil and Argentina​

• Grown in tropical and subtropical regions

• Significant export commodity​

Cattle Ranching

• Pampas region of Argentina and Uruguay is famous for cattle production​

• Brazil has large cattle ranching operations, especially in the Pantanal and central regions​

• Venezuela also has significant cattle ranching in the Llanos​

Other Important Crops

• Sugar cane: Brazil is a major producer, particularly in São Paulo state​​

• Cotton: Produced in Brazil (northern and eastern states) and Argentina​

• Rice: Tropical and subtropical regions of Brazil, Argentina, Colombia​

• Cacao: Amazon region, especially Ecuador

• Oranges: Brazil is the world’s largest producer​

• Bananas: Ecuador, Colombia, Costa Rica (Central America)

• Grapes and wine: Chile and Argentina (Mendoza region)

Agricultural Zones

• Tierra Templada: Coffee and various fruits thrive​

• Tierra Fría: Hardy crops and livestock suited for cooler climates​

• Slash-and-burn agriculture: Practiced in the Guiana Highlands for corn and rice​

11.2 Mineral Resources

South America is exceptionally rich in mineral wealth:​

Copper

• Chile is the world’s leading producer​

• Also significant production in Peru​

• Chile leads in copper, iodine, and lithium production​

Lithium

• Latin America holds 60% of world lithium reserves​

• Top producers: Bolivia, Argentina, Chile (the “Lithium Triangle”)​

• Found in salt flats (salares) in the Andes, particularly in Salta, Jujuy, and Catamarca provinces (Argentina)​

• Argentina has six lithium projects in production​

Iron Ore

• Brazil is a major exporter​

• Carajás region produces iron ore transported to Itaqui port via railway​

Oil and Natural Gas

• Venezuela contains some of the largest proven oil reserves in the world​

• In 2013, Venezuela was the third-largest exporter of crude oil to the United States​

• Brazil has significant pre-salt offshore oil fields​

• Argentina’s Vaca Muerta shale formation contains vast unconventional gas reserves​

• Ecuador, Peru, Colombia also contribute oil to world markets​

Gold

• Found in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela​

• Pascua Lama mine (Argentina-Chile border) produces gold, silver, and copper​

Other Minerals

• Rare earth elements: Brazil holds approximately one-fifth of world reserves​

• Nickel: Significant reserves in Brazil​

• Manganese: Brazil​

• Lead: Brazil​

• Diamonds: Brazil​

• Tin: Bolivia

• Silver: Peru, Bolivia, Argentina​

• Bauxite (Aluminum): Suriname, Venezuela, Brazil

• Emeralds: Colombia (world’s leading producer)

11.3 Energy Resources

• Hydroelectric power: Brazil has extensive hydroelectric capacity; Amazon region potential​

• Wind and solar: Growing renewable energy sector, particularly in Brazil, Chile, and Argentina​

• Coal: Colombia is a significant producer​

• Natural gas: Argentina’s Vaca Muerta formation is rapidly expanding​

• Bioenergy: Extensive use in Latin America, particularly Brazil (ethanol from sugarcane)​

12. Economy and Trade

12.1 Economic Overview

• Brazil is the largest economy in South America in terms of nominal GDP​

• The region has two major trade blocs: Mercosur (Southern Common Market) and the Andean Community​

• Mercosur members: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela (suspended)​

• Latin America’s primary energy mix is dominated by fossil fuels (70%), below the global average of 80%​

12.2 Trade Performance (2024)

• South America’s product exports grew by 4% in 2024​

• Export volumes increased by 5% while prices dropped by 1%​

• Agricultural exports increased by 11%, with soybeans, corn, and wheat showing the largest growth​

• Import volumes increased by 4% while prices decreased by 2%, resulting in a 2% increase in import values​

• Export growth from Latin America and the Caribbean: 4.1%, driven by South America​

12.3 Major Exports

• Agricultural products: Soybeans, coffee, wheat, corn, beef, sugar, oranges​​

• Minerals and metals: Copper, iron ore, lithium, gold, silver​

• Energy: Oil, natural gas, coal​

• Manufactured goods: Automobiles, machinery, chemicals​

12.4 Trade Partners

• Asia receives 20.1% of Latin American and Caribbean exports (2017), with China being a major destination​

• United States: Major trading partner, particularly for oil from Venezuela and agricultural products​

• European Union: Traditional trading partner due to historical ties​

• Intra-regional trade: Growing through Mercosur and other agreements​

12.5 Major Industries

• Mining and extraction: Copper, lithium, iron ore, oil and gas​

• Agriculture and food processing: Coffee, soybeans, beef, sugar​​

• Manufacturing: Particularly in Brazil, Argentina, and Chile​

• Services: Tourism, finance, logistics​

• Fishing: Important in Peru, Chile (anchovy, tuna)​

12.6 Major Ports

South America’s ports are critical for international maritime trade:​

1. Port of Santos (Brazil) – Among the busiest in Latin America; exports soybeans, sugar, coffee, manufactured goods​

2. Port of Itaqui (Brazil) – Largest and busiest port, handling 146 million tonnes annually; specialized terminals for iron ore​

3. Port of Tubarão (Brazil) – Major iron ore exporter​

4. Port of Callao (Peru) – Main port serving Lima​

5. Port of Chancay (Peru) – Newest major port (opened late 2024), designed for ultra-large vessels up to 24,000 TEUs​

6. Port of San Antonio (Chile) – 8th largest throughput in Latin America (2019), handling 1.71 million TEU​

7. Port of Cartagena (Colombia) – Major Caribbean port​

8. Port of Buenos Aires (Argentina) – Primary port for Argentina’s exports

12.7 Infrastructure Challenges

• Ports require significant investment to accommodate larger vessels (13,000+ TEU capacity)​

• Infrastructure gap affects transport, energy, telecommunications, water, and sanitation sectors​

• Roads and railways connecting hinterlands to ports need improvement​

13. Ocean Currents

13.1 Humboldt Current (Peru Current)

• A cold, low-salinity ocean current flowing northward along the western coast of South America​

• Extends from southern Chile to northern Peru​

• Named after German naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, though discovered by José de Acosta 250 years earlier​

• Extends 500-1,000 km (310-620 mi) offshore​

• Creates a significant cooling influence on the climate of Chile, Peru, and Ecuador​

• Largely responsible for the aridity of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile and coastal Peru​

• Marine air is cooled, preventing precipitation but producing clouds and fog​

• Supports upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, making it one of the world’s most productive fishing grounds​

• Upwelling occurs year-round off Peru, but only in spring and summer along Chile​

13.2 Brazil Current

• Warm ocean current flowing southward along the eastern coast of Brazil

• Part of the South Atlantic Gyre

• Moderates temperatures along Brazil’s coast

13.3 Falkland Current

• Cold current flowing northward along the coast of Argentina

• Meets the Brazil Current, creating rich fishing grounds

14. Waterfalls

14.1 Angel Falls (Kerepakupai Merú)

• Located in Canaima National Park, Bolívar State, Venezuela​

• The world’s highest uninterrupted waterfall​

• Total height: 979 meters (3,212 feet), with the main plunge of 807 m and additional cascades below​

• Width at base: 500 feet (150 meters)​

• Leaps from Auyán-Tepuí (Devils Mountain), a flat-topped plateau in the Guiana Highlands​

• Average water flow: approximately 33,000 gallons (125,000 liters) per second during the rainy season​

• Named after James Angel, an American aviator who crash-landed his plane nearby in 1937​

• Indigenous name: Kerepakupai Merú or Parecupá Merú​

• Best viewed from the air due to dense jungle surroundings​

• UNESCO World Heritage Site (as part of Canaima National Park)​

14.2 Iguazu Falls

• Located on the border between Brazil and Argentina

• One of the largest waterfall systems in the world

• System of approximately 275 individual falls

14.3 Kaieteur Falls

• Located in Guyana

• Single-drop waterfall with 226 m height

• One of the most powerful waterfalls in the world by volume

15. Wildlife and Biodiversity

South America is one of the most biodiverse regions on Earth:

Amazonian Species

• Jaguars, pumas, tapirs, capybaras, anacondas, caimans

• Over 1,300 bird species including macaws, toucans, harpy eagles

• Pink river dolphins

• Thousands of fish species including piranhas and arapaima

Andean Species

• Llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, guanacos

• Spectacled bears, mountain tapirs

• Andean condors (largest flying bird)

• Chinchillas

Patagonian Species

• Guanacos, Patagonian maras

• Pumas, Andean foxes

• Darwin’s rheas

Marine Species

• Penguins (Humboldt, Magellanic)

• Sea lions, fur seals

• Whales (humpback, southern right, orcas)

• Albatrosses

Galápagos Species

• Giant tortoises, marine iguanas

• Blue-footed boobies, frigatebirds

• Galápagos penguins

Conclusion

South America is a continent of remarkable diversity, featuring the world’s longest mountain range (Andes), largest rainforest (Amazon), highest waterfall (Angel Falls), and driest desert (Atacama). With a population exceeding 438 million people distributed across 12 independent nations, the continent exhibits enormous variation in climate, topography, culture, and economic development.​

The continent’s geography creates unique ecological zones from tropical rainforests to subpolar tundra, supporting extraordinary biodiversity. Rich in natural resources including minerals (copper, lithium, iron ore), energy (oil, gas), and agricultural products (soybeans, coffee, beef), South America plays a vital role in global commodity markets.​​

Major physical features include the Andes Mountains stretching 7,000 km along the western edge, the vast Amazon Basin covering 7 million sq. km in the interior, and the Eastern Highlands comprising the Guiana and Brazilian plateaus. The continent is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west, Atlantic Ocean to the east, and connected to North America by the narrow Isthmus of Panama.​

South America’s strategic location, abundant resources, and growing economies position it as an increasingly important region in the 21st-century global economy, despite ongoing challenges in infrastructure development and sustainable resource management.

Geography