THE PALLAVAS OF KANCHI

THE PALLAVAS OF KANCHI

INTRODUCTION

The Pallava dynasty emerged as one of the most significant powers in South India, ruling from the 3rd century CE to the 9th century CE. With their capital at Kanchipuram (Kanchi), the Pallavas dominated the northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh regions. The dynasty rose to prominence after the decline of the Satavahanas, initially serving as their feudatories before establishing their independence. The Pallavas are celebrated for their extraordinary contributions to art, architecture, literature, and administration, which profoundly influenced the cultural landscape of South India and beyond.

ORIGIN OF THE PALLAVAS

The origin of the Pallava dynasty remains a subject of scholarly debate, with multiple theories proposed by historians:

Theory 1: Northern Origin – Some scholars identify the Pallavas with Persian tribes (Pahlavas or Parthians), suggesting a foreign origin.

Theory 2: Satavahana Feudatory Theory – This widely accepted theory proposes that the Pallavas were initially feudatories of the Satavahanas in the Andhradesa region (north of the Penna River). They later expanded southward, establishing their power in Kanchi.

Theory 3: Indigenous Kanchi Origin – An alternative theory suggests that the Pallavas originated in Kanchi itself and expanded northward, reaching as far as the Krishna River.

Theory 4: Chola-Naga Connection – Based on Tamil epic references, some scholars believe the Pallavas were descendants of a Chola prince who married a Naga princess of Manipallavam (identified with Jaffna in Sri Lanka). Their son became the ruler of Tondaimandalam, establishing the Pallava line.

The consensus among modern historians is that the Pallavas were natives of Tondaimandalam who became Satavahana feudatories and gained independence in the third century CE after the decline of their overlords. This is supported by their early inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit, reflecting Satavahana connections.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT

The Pallava kingdom underwent several phases of territorial expansion:

Core Territory: The heartland of the Pallava empire comprised Tondaimandalam (northern Tamil Nadu), with Kanchipuram as the political, cultural, and religious center.

Maximum Extent: At its zenith during the reign of Narasimhavarman I, the Pallava territories extended from southern Andhra Pradesh in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. They controlled significant portions of present-day Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

Strategic Regions: The Pallavas maintained control over the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab, which became a constant bone of contention with the Chalukyas of Badami. They also reduced the powerful Cholas to a marginal state in the seventh century.

Maritime Influence: The Pallavas controlled the Coromandel Coast, which provided access to major maritime trade routes connecting Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. Their ports at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) and Mylapore served as crucial centers for international trade.

IMPORTANT RULERS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

Early Pallavas

Sivaskandavarman (3rd Century CE)

The first great Pallava ruler mentioned in early Prakrit charters. His empire comprised Kanchi, Andhrapatha, and surrounding districts. He performed the prestigious Ashvamedha sacrifice, demonstrating his imperial ambitions. His copper plate inscriptions, issued from Kanchipura, provide valuable insights into early Pallava administration.

Vishnugopa (4th Century CE)

Defeated by the Gupta emperor Samudragupta during his southern campaign in the mid-fourth century CE. This defeat temporarily destabilized the Pallavas, pushing them into obscurity for more than a century.

Imperial Pallavas

Simhavishnu (575-600 CE)

Regarded as the true founder of Pallava greatness. He revived the Pallava dynasty after the period of obscurity following Vishnugopa’s defeat. Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras who had disrupted Tamil country, inaugurating the rule of imperial Pallavas. He claimed victories over the three Tamil kingdoms—Pandyas, Cholas, and Cheras—and even overwhelmed the ruler of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Also known as Avanisimha, he was a Buddhist ruler. A sculptural representation of this war-like king, attended by his two queens, is found in the Adivaraha Mandapa at Mahabalipuram.

Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE)

One of the most versatile and accomplished Pallava rulers. His reign marked the beginning of the long struggle between the Pallavas and Chalukyas, which dominated South Indian politics for two centuries.

Religious Transformation: Initially a Jain, Mahendravarman converted to Shaivism under the influence of the Shaiva saint Appar. He built the Shiva temple at Tiruvadi following his conversion.

Literary Achievements: A gifted poet and playwright, he authored the Sanskrit works Mattavilasa Prahasanam and Bhagavadajjuka. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talent for painting.

Architectural Innovation: Mahendravarman introduced rock-cut temple architecture to South India, marking a revolutionary departure from earlier traditions. He was the first Southern ruler to excavate temples from solid rocks. Notable examples include the cave temples at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, Dalavanur, Vallam, Mahendravadi, and Tiruchirappalli. He erected the Chitra Mega Tadakam (Mamandur Tank), demonstrating his commitment to public works.

Military Conflicts: Mahendravarman faced continuous rivalry with Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty. He suffered defeat at the hands of Pulakeshin II, who snatched the Vengi region from the Pallavas around 610 CE. Mahendravarman died in battle against the Chalukyas.

Narasimhavarman I Mamalla (630-668 CE)

Considered the greatest of all Pallava rulers. Known as Mamallan (great wrestler), he avenged his father’s defeats and elevated the Pallavas to unprecedented heights.

Military Triumphs: Narasimhavarman inflicted decisive defeats on Pulakeshin II at three successive battles—Pariyala, Suramara (Manimangala)—all in Pallava territory. In 642 CE, he launched a massive offensive into Chalukya territory, capturing and destroying their capital Vatapi (Badami). Pulakeshin II was killed in this battle. The victorious Pallavas occupied Vatapi for twelve years (642-654 CE). After this historic victory, Narasimhavarman assumed the title Vatapikonda (Conqueror of Vatapi). He also defeated the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, establishing Pallava supremacy throughout South India.

Naval Expeditions: Demonstrating Pallava maritime power, Narasimhavarman sent two naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, reinstating his friend and Ceylon Prince Manavarman on the throne.

Urban Development: He founded the city of Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), named after him, which became a flourishing port city and architectural marvel.

Cultural Flourishing: The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava kingdom around 640 CE during Narasimhavarman’s reign. He described Kanchipuram as a large and beautiful city with abundant agricultural products and happy people. Hiuen Tsang mentioned the presence of about one hundred Buddhist monasteries housing approximately ten thousand monks. The Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great center of learning. Great Nayannar saints like Appar, Tirugnanasambandar, and Siruthondar lived during his reign.

Architectural Patronage: Under his rule (Mamalla style), Mahabalipuram witnessed the creation of monolithic shrines (rathas), cave temples, and massive rock sculptures.

Mahendravarman II (668-670 CE)

Son and successor of Narasimhavarman I, his reign was brief. He continued his father’s policies but died within two years.

Paramesvaravarman I (670-695 CE)

An efficient and capable ruler known for his military exploits and devotion to Lord Shiva. His reign witnessed revived conflicts with the Chalukyas under Vikramaditya I.

Major Battles: In 674 CE, Paramesvaravarman won a stupendous victory at Peruvalanallur near Tiruchirappalli against a huge coalition led by Vikramaditya I. However, he also faced defeats, including at Vilande against the Ganga ruler Bhuvikrama. Vikramaditya I temporarily captured Kanchipuram during his aggressive campaigns.

Last of the Simhavishnu Line: Paramesvaravarman I was the last ruler of the Simhavishnu line of Pallavas. He was killed by the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II.

Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (695-722 CE)

One of the greatest builders among the Pallavas, ushering in the era of structural temples. His reign marked the transition from rock-cut to free-standing stone temples.

Architectural Masterpieces: Narasimhavarman II built the magnificent Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Shore Temple complex comprises three shrines—two dedicated to Shiva and one to Vishnu—built directly on the seashore. He constructed the Kailasanatha Temple (also called Rajasimheshwara Temple) at Kanchipuram, considered one of the finest examples of Pallava architecture. He also built the Airavatesvara Temple at Kanchi.

Rajasimha Style: The structural temples of this period are characterized by pyramidal vimanas, intricate carvings, and sophisticated architectural planning, representing the culmination of Pallava architectural evolution.

Paramesvaravarman II (705-730 CE)

His short reign was marked by intense conflict with the Chalukyas. Vikramaditya II of the Chalukyas launched successful campaigns against him, temporarily capturing Kanchipuram around 740 CE.

Later Pallavas (Kadava Line)

After Paramesvaravarman II, the Pallava throne passed to the collateral Kadava line, descendants of Bhimavarman, brother of Simhavishnu.

Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (732-796 CE)

Son of Hiranyavarman of the Kadavakula, he belonged to a collateral branch that “raised the prestige of the Kadava family”. His long reign provided stability to the kingdom. He built the Vaikunta Perumal Temple (Parameswara Vinnagaram) at Kanchipuram, unique for its three functional storeys and sculptured panels narrating Pallava dynastic history. He also constructed the Mukteswara Temple and Matangeshwar Temple (both Shiva temples) at Kanchi. His copper plate grants provide detailed information about village administration and land management.

Dantivarman (795-846 CE)

His long reign witnessed gradual weakening of central authority as local chieftains gained power.

Nandivarman III (846-869 CE)

Continued the declining trajectory as the Cholas began their resurgence under Vijayalaya.

Aparajitavarman (879-897 CE)

The last known Pallava ruler. Initially, the Cholas under Aditya I were minor allies and vassals of the Pallavas. In 880 CE, Aparajita defeated the Pandya ruler Varagunavarman II. In 885 CE, he rewarded Aditya I by transferring control of Thanjavur for his contribution to the victory at Thirupurambiyam. However, the Cholas soon turned against their former overlords. In approximately 897 CE, Aditya I attacked, defeated, and killed Aparajitavarman in battle, marking the end of Pallava rule. The Pallava territories were subsequently annexed into the expanding Chola Empire. A Somaskanda sculpture commissioned by Aparajita at Tiruttani is regarded as the last known example of that Pallava stylistic tradition.

ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM

The Pallavas developed a sophisticated and well-organized administrative system that blended centralized authority with local autonomy.

Central Administration

Monarchy: The Pallavas followed hereditary monarchy, with the king as the supreme head of state. Normally, the eldest son succeeded to the throne. Pallava kings assumed grandiose titles such as Maharaja, Maharajathiraja, and Dharma-Maharaja, reflecting their imperial aspirations. They claimed divine origin and considered themselves representatives of God.

Council of Ministers: An efficient Council of Ministers (Amatyas) assisted the king in administration. Ministers bore titles such as Uthamaseelan, Brahmarajan, and Peraraiyan. They carried out royal orders and rendered cooperation and service to the king in all administrative matters. Besides the Council, specialized officials managed each department of administration.

Territorial Administration

Administrative Divisions: The Pallava state was divided into Kottams (also called Nadu), which served as the basic administrative units. Kottams were administered by officers appointed by the king. A group of villages formed a Nadu, multiple Nadus constituted a Nagaram, and several Nagarams together formed a Manadalam.

Local Self-Government: A distinctive feature of Pallava administration was the emphasis on local autonomous institutions. The village was the basic unit of administration, managed by various assemblies. Three important territorial assemblies existed: Ur (non-Brahmanical village assembly), Sabha (assembly of Brahmin landowners), and Nagaram (assembly of mercantile groups). These assemblies met regularly every year, while small executive bodies handled day-to-day affairs. The Brahmin settlements’ Sabha or Mahasabha evolved into a sophisticated governance system through committees called Variyam, which became a hallmark of self-government. Village officials maintained records of all lands, looked after local affairs, managed temples, and administered justice.

Judicial System

The Pallava kingdom had a three-tier court system:

Dharmasena: The highest judicial organization, presided over by the king himself.

Adikarnas: Courts established in towns for urban justice.

Karnas: Village courts that handled civil disputes at the local level. The village Sabhas also functioned as courts for settling civil matters.

Punishments were not cruel or harsh, and fines were imposed proportionate to the offense.

Military Organization

The Pallavas maintained a strong and large standing army with four divisions:

• Infantry (foot soldiers)

• Cavalry (horsemen), which played a vital role in warfare

• Elephants (war elephants)

• Chariots (though their use declined over time)

The Pallavas also possessed a powerful Navy, demonstrated by Narasimhavarman I’s successful naval expeditions to Sri Lanka.

Revenue Administration

Land Tax: The primary source of government revenue was land tax. Pallava copper plates and inscriptions mention eighteen kinds of taxes collected from various sources.

Taxation Basis: The number of lakes, tanks, wells, rivers, and trees were counted for taxation purposes. Taxes were levied on professional groups including oil-pressers, washermen, goldsmiths, cattle breeders, carpenters, and weavers.

Tax Exemptions: The Pallavas created extensive Brahmadeya (villages granted to Brahmins), Agrahara, and Devadana (land granted to temples) villages throughout their kingdom. These settlements were exempted from paying taxes and were given the right to collect various local taxes.

Land Grants: Copper plate inscriptions detail elaborate land grants, specifying boundaries, tax exemptions, and administrative arrangements. These grants were often made on occasions like solar eclipses or to reward scholars and religious institutions.

Coinage

The Pallavas issued coins in lead, copper, and bronze. While silver and gold coins have rarely been discovered, inscriptions mention gold coins and gold transactions. Coins were mostly round, with a few square specimens. They weighed approximately 0.45 to 9.8 grams and measured 1 to 2.5 cm in diameter.

Symbols: The bull (royal emblem of the Pallavas and symbol of Lord Shiva) and lion were the basic symbols on Pallava coins. Other symbols included swastika, chakra, flag, twin-masted ship, elephant, and crescent. The ship design represents the Pallavas’ successful control of the eastern seaport of Kaveripaddinam.

Legends: Coins from Mahendravarman I onwards bore legends in addition to symbols, often in Telugu and Pallava Grantha script. The Pallava coinage reflects their Andhra dynastic tradition.

CONFLICTS WITH THE CHALUKYAS

The protracted struggle between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami for supremacy in peninsular India constitutes the principal theme of South Indian political history from the sixth to the eighth century.

Causes of Conflict

Both dynasties sought to establish control over the fertile Krishna-Tungabhadra doab, which became the perennial bone of contention. Despite both championing Brahmanism, performing Vedic sacrifices, and making grants to Brahmanas, they quarreled over plunder, prestige, and territorial resources. The Tungabhadra River formed the natural historic boundary between the Deccan kingdoms and the deep south, which Pallava princes repeatedly attempted to cross.

Major Phases of the Conflict

First Chalukya Invasion (c. 610 CE): Pulakeshin II launched his first major campaign against the Pallavas during Mahendravarman I’s reign. The Chalukya king almost reached the Pallava capital Kanchipuram and besieged it. The Pallavas purchased peace by ceding their northern provinces to Pulakeshin II. The battle at Pallalura (modern Pullalur) mentioned in Pallava inscriptions appears to have been inconclusive, with both sides claiming victory.

Second Chalukya Invasion (c. 630-642 CE): After Narasimhavarman I ascended the throne, Pulakeshin II launched a second expedition to consolidate his earlier gains. The Chalukya king initiated the attack, with all clashes occurring in Pallava territory. However, this time the results were dramatically different. Narasimhavarman I defeated the Chalukyas in three successive battles at Pariyala, Suramara, and Manimangala—all near the Pallava capital. The battle of Manimangala marked the first-ever Pallava victory against the Chalukyas and the first of four successive defeats suffered by Pulakeshin II. The Pallavas created a loose confederacy with other southern kingdoms to strengthen their position.

Pallava Counter-Offensive and Battle of Vatapi (642 CE): Taking the offensive, Narasimhavarman I pursued the retreating Chalukyas deep into their territory. A formidable Pallava force under the brilliant general Paranjothi was sent to capture Vatapi. Pulakeshin II met the Pallavas outside his capital in a final desperate battle. The battle resulted in a decisive Pallava victory, with Pulakeshin II killed in the fighting. The victorious Pallavas captured and occupied Vatapi from 642 to 654 CE, thoroughly plundering the city. The Kuram copper plates describe how Narasimhavarman “wrote the syllables of vijaya (victory) on Pulikesin’s back” and “destroyed Vatapi, just as Agastya destroyed the demon Vatapi”. Paranjothi brought back enormous war booty, including coins, treasures, and the famous Vatapi Ganesha idol, which was installed at Tiruchenkattankudi. This victory established the Pallavas as the dominant power in South India.

Chalukya Resurgence under Vikramaditya I (c. 670-674 CE): After regaining power, the Chalukyas under Vikramaditya I sought revenge. Vikramaditya I campaigned against Paramesvaravarman I, temporarily capturing Kanchipuram around 670-671 CE with help from the Gangas of Talakkad. At the Battle of Vilande, Paramesvaravarman I suffered defeat and was deprived of his royal necklace by the Ganga ruler Bhuvikrama. In April 674 CE, Vikramaditya I advanced as far south as Uragapura (Uraiyur) on the Kaveri River’s south bank. At the Battle of Peruvalanallur (674 CE), Paramesvaravarman I, allied with the Pandya king, won a stupendous victory against the Chalukya coalition, checking their advance.

Continued Conflicts (8th Century): The rivalry continued under subsequent rulers. Vikramaditya II launched campaigns against Paramesvaravarman II, capturing Kanchipuram around 740 CE. However, none of these later invasions achieved lasting territorial gains, and the conflict eventually subsided as both dynasties faced new challenges from rising powers like the Rashtrakutas and Cholas.

Significance

This prolonged struggle, while destructive, stimulated military innovation, diplomatic alliances, and cultural competition. It also demonstrated the limitations of conquest without effective administration, as temporary occupations failed to translate into permanent control. The conflict exhausted both dynasties, ultimately paving the way for the rise of the Cholas and Rashtrakutas.

SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

Social Structure

Pallava society was hierarchical, organized along the lines of the varna (caste) system.

Brahmins: Enjoyed the highest social status and received substantial royal patronage. They were granted extensive land gifts (Brahmadeya villages) and exempted from taxation. Brahmins served as priests, scholars, administrators, and advisors to the king. They settled throughout the Pallava kingdom, particularly in rice-cultivating regions.

Kshatriyas and Vaishyas: Formed the warrior and merchant classes respectively, playing important roles in administration, military, and trade.

Shudras and Lower Castes: Engaged in various occupations including agriculture, crafts, and services. Despite their lower social status, the Bhakti movement during this period provided some opportunities for social mobility and religious expression across caste boundaries.

Language and Learning: Sanskrit gained prominence as the language of administration, literature, and elite culture. Kanchipuram emerged as a major center of Sanskrit learning. However, Tamil continued to flourish as the vernacular language, with the Pallavas supporting both Sanskrit and Tamil literature. The development of the Grantha script under the Pallavas facilitated the writing of Sanskrit texts in the Tamil region, eventually evolving into the modern Tamil script.

Women: While limited information exists about women’s status, inscriptions mention queens, female saints (like Karaikkal Ammaiyar among the Nayanars), and women landowners.

Economic Life

Agriculture: The Pallava economy was predominantly agrarian, based on village agriculture. Paddy (rice) and cotton were extensively cultivated. Rice was exported to China and the East Indies. The Pallavas encouraged agricultural development through irrigation projects. Mahendravarman I erected the Mamandur Tank (Chitra Mega Tadakam), and numerous other tanks and canals were constructed. The creation of Brahmadeya villages (land grants to Brahmins) began during the Pallava period, expanding agricultural settlement. Lands donated to temples were called Devadanas. Two types of lands existed—cultivable lands and arid lands, with arid lands being reclaimed and cultivated.

Crafts and Industries: Pallava craftsmen excelled in various trades. Major crafts included weaving (especially silk in Kanchipuram), stone cutting, pottery, carpentry, ivory work, and metalwork (goldsmiths). Cotton clothes were exported to China, Babylonia, and Egypt. Kanchipuram remained an important center for silk weaving, a tradition continuing to this day.

Internal Trade: The expanding Pallava economy led to remarkable growth in internal trade. Regular markets gradually became urban centers. Excellent highways facilitated the transport of goods. Kanchipuram, the capital, served as an important trading center. Merchants had to obtain licenses to keep shops and paid taxes to the government. The Pallavas issued gold and silver coins, facilitating commercial expansion. Merchants formed their own organizations called Manigramam for mutual protection and regulation.

Foreign Trade: The Pallavas maintained extensive maritime trade networks. Major exports included spices, cotton textiles, precious stones, and medicinal plants to Java, Sumatra, Kadaram (Kedah), Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China, and Burma. Foreign merchants were known as Nanadesi. Mamallapuram and Mylapore served as the principal seaports. Mamallapuram was particularly crucial for trade with Southeast Asia. The twin-masted ship symbol on Pallava coins reflects their maritime orientation.

Weights and Measures: Lands were measured using units called Uzhavu, Nivarthanam or Pattiga, and Hala. Ploughs were used for measuring land. Paddy and rice were measured by Chudunazhhi. Other measurement units included Videl, Vidugu, and Uzhkku, with Pidi being the smallest unit.

Revenue Sources: Besides land tax, the government collected revenue from trade, customs duties, professional taxes, and war booty. Inscriptions mention various conveyance fees and taxes collected from artisans and traders.

RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS

Hinduism and the Bhakti Movement

The Pallava period witnessed a significant Hindu revival and the flourishing of the Bhakti movement in South India.

Royal Patronage: Pallava kings were primarily devotees of Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Most rulers, starting with Mahendravarman I after his conversion, were Shaiva followers. However, they also patronized Vaishnava temples and institutions, as evidenced by Vishnu shrines at the Shore Temple and Vaikunta Perumal Temple.

Nayanars and Alvars: From the 7th century onwards, the Nayanars (Shaiva saints) and Alvars (Vaishnava saints) spearheaded the Bhakti movement. Nayanars: Sixty-three in number, they were devotees of Lord Shiva. Prominent Nayanars included Appar (who converted Mahendravarman I to Shaivism), Tirugnanasambandar, Sundarar, and Manikkavasagar. Their hymns, collectively known as Tevaram, composed in Tamil, expressed intense personal devotion to Shiva. They conceptualized Shiva as a warrior god fighting battles and warding away evils, associating his achievements with specific sites in the Kaveri valley. Alvars: Twelve in number, they worshipped Lord Vishnu in his various forms (Narayana, Shriranganatha, Rama, Krishna). Major Alvars included Periyalvar, Andal (one of the few female saints), Nammalvar, and Thirumangai Alvar. Their devotional hymns are compiled in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Four Thousand Sacred Compositions), consisting of 4,000 Tamil verses.

Impact of Bhakti: The movement emphasized simple devotion (bhakti) over elaborate rituals, making Hinduism more accessible to common people. It promoted a highly personalized religious attitude focused on an individual’s emotional relationship with god. The Bhakti saints hailed from diverse social backgrounds, showcasing the movement’s egalitarian ethos and challenging caste barriers. Their efforts helped revive Hinduism and reduce the influence of Jainism and Buddhism in Tamil Nadu. The Pallava rulers provided state support to this movement, with kings like Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I patronizing the saints.

Buddhism and Jainism

Despite the Hindu revival, Buddhism and Jainism continued to exist during the Pallava period, though their influence gradually waned.

Buddhism: Hiuen Tsang’s account mentions about one hundred Buddhist monasteries in Kanchipuram with approximately ten thousand monks during Narasimhavarman I’s reign. Simhavishnu was a Buddhist. However, royal patronage increasingly shifted toward Hinduism.

Jainism: Several early Pallava rulers, including Mahendravarman I in his youth, were Jains. However, the conversion of Mahendravarman I to Shaivism by Appar symbolized the declining fortunes of Jainism under the Pallavas. Nevertheless, Jain temples and communities continued to exist throughout the period.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

The Pallavas made unparalleled contributions to South Indian art and architecture, pioneering the Dravidian style that would influence temple building for centuries.

Evolution of Pallava Architecture

Pallava architecture evolved through distinct phases:

1. Mahendra Style (610-630 CE): The earliest phase under Mahendravarman I featured simple rock-cut cave temples (mandapas) hewn from mountain faces. These followed the prototype of contemporary Jain temples. Characterized by simplicity of plan, austerity in sculptural decoration, and minimal ornamentation. Pillared halls with octagonal-sectioned pillars, some with lotus medallions. Dvarapalas (guardian figures) began appearing at sanctum entrances, depicted resting on serpent-entwined clubs. Examples: Cave temples at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram, and Mamandur.

2. Mamalla Style (630-668 CE): During Narasimhavarman I’s reign, significant innovations were introduced. Free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas (chariots) were carved from single granite rocks alongside cave temples. The famous Pancha Rathas (Five Rathas) at Mahabalipuram exemplify this style. Each ratha represents a different architectural prototype, showcasing diverse temple designs: – Dharmaraja Ratha: Largest, Dravidian style with pyramidal vimana, dedicated to Shiva – Bhima Ratha: Square structure with ornate pillars, dedicated to Vishnu – Arjuna Ratha: Square structure dedicated to Shiva – Nakula Sahadeva Ratha: Square design, dedicated to Indra – Draupadi Ratha: Unique apsidal (horse-shoe shaped) design, possibly dedicated to Durga Massive rock-cut bas-reliefs like Arjuna’s Penance (Descent of the Ganges), the world’s largest open-air bas-relief. Richly embellished cave temples: Varaha Mandapa, Mahishamardini Mandapa, Krishna Mandapa, and Trimurti Mandapa.

3. Rajasimha Style (690-800 CE): The transition from rock-cut to structural temples built with stone and mortar. Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha pioneered this revolutionary phase. The magnificent Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram stands as the earliest important structural temple in South India. Constructed with sculpted granite blocks from nearby quarries. Features pyramidal towers (shikharas) 60 feet high on a 50-foot square platform. Contains two Shiva shrines (one facing east, one west) and a Vishnu shrine between them. The Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram represents the pinnacle of Pallava structural architecture. Characterized by pyramidal kutina-type towers with stepped stories topped by cupolas and finials. Intricate carvings, elaborate sculptural programs, and sophisticated architectural planning.

4. Nandivarman Style (800-900 CE): Later structural temples like the Vaikunta Perumal Temple built by Nandivarman II. Unique three-storey structure with sculptured panels narrating Pallava dynastic history. Continued refinement of the Dravidian architectural tradition.

Characteristics of Pallava Architecture

Use of Hard Stone: Unlike earlier traditions using softer sandstone, the Pallavas deliberately chose hard materials—granite, gneiss, and charnockite. This presented enormous technical challenges but resulted in enduring monuments.

Monolithic Tradition: Entire structures, statues, and reliefs were carved from single rock formations or large boulders.

Lion Motif: Pillars embellished with carved lions at their bases became a signature feature of Pallava architecture.

Sculptural Excellence: Detailed panels depicted episodes from Hindu mythology. Notable examples include Varaha lifting the Earth, Mahishamardini slaying the buffalo demon, and Krishna holding Mount Govardhana. Sculptures known for their natural grace, suppleness, and attention to detail.

Temple Layout: Development of standardized temple components—vimana (tower over sanctum), mandapa (pillared hall), gopuram (entrance gateway).

Influence: Pallava architectural innovations inspired the great Chola temples of later centuries and spread to Southeast Asia.

UNESCO World Heritage Recognition

The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. The site includes rock-cut cave temples, monolithic rathas, bas-relief sculptures, structural temples, and excavated temple remains. These monuments occupy a distinct position in classical Indian architecture, demonstrating the high quality of craftsmanship achieved in the region during the 6th-7th centuries CE.

LITERATURE AND LEARNING

Sanskrit Literature

Kanchipuram emerged as a renowned center for Sanskrit learning during the Pallava period. The Pallavas were strong patrons of Sanskrit literature, providing support to scholars, poets, and philosophers. Royal literary contributions include Mahendravarman I’s plays Mattavilasa Prahasanam and Bhagavadajjuka. The Ghatika (university) at Kanchi attracted scholars from across India.

Tamil Literature

The Pallavas played a crucial role in Tamil literary development. While supporting Sanskrit, they also fostered Tamil as the vernacular language. The Bhakti saints’ Tamil compositions—Tevaram (Nayanar hymns) and Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Alvar hymns)—represent major literary achievements. These devotional works formed the foundation of Tamil religious literature and continue to be integral to temple rituals.

Development of Scripts

Pallava Grantha Script: The Pallavas developed the Grantha script (also called Pallava Grantha or Pallava script) to write Sanskrit texts in the Tamil region. Emerging around the 4th-5th century CE, it addressed the complexities of Sanskrit phonetics that regional scripts couldn’t adequately represent. Pallava inscriptions frequently appear in both Sanskrit (written in Grantha) and Tamil, showcasing the bilingual nature of their court. The Grantha script evolved over time, eventually developing into the modern Tamil script. Influence on Southeast Asia: The Pallava Grantha script spread to Southeast Asia through trade and cultural contacts, evolving into scripts such as Balinese, Baybayin, Javanese, Kawi, Khmer, Lanna, Lao, Mon-Burmese, Sundanese, and Thai.

Inscriptions and Epigraphy

Pallava copper plate inscriptions and stone inscriptions provide invaluable historical information. Early inscriptions (3rd-6th centuries) were in Prakrit using Brahmi script. Later inscriptions (from Simhavishnu onwards) used Sanskrit in Grantha script and Tamil. These inscriptions document royal genealogies, military victories, religious beliefs, administrative practices, land grants, and social conditions. Important examples include the Hirahadagalli plates, Kuram copper plates, and Velurpalaiyam plates.

DECLINE OF THE PALLAVA DYNASTY

The Pallava dynasty’s decline was a gradual process resulting from multiple internal and external factors.

Internal Factors

Weak Leadership: Later Pallava rulers lacked the military prowess and administrative skills of earlier monarchs like Narasimhavarman I. Successive kings proved unable to maintain the empire’s stability and unity.

Decentralization of Power: Central authority weakened as local chieftains and feudatories grew increasingly powerful and autonomous. The empire’s carefully constructed administrative system began to fragment.

Succession Disputes: The transition from the Simhavishnu line to the Kadava line in the 8th century created legitimacy questions. Continuous succession disputes and rivalries between princes provided opportunities for rivals to exploit.

External Threats

Chalukya Invasions: Repeated Chalukya attacks, particularly under Vikramaditya II, significantly weakened the Pallavas. The capture and temporary occupation of Kanchipuram around 740 CE was a decisive blow to Pallava prestige.

Rise of the Cholas: The resurgence of the Chola dynasty under Vijayalaya in the mid-9th century posed an existential threat. The Cholas, once reduced to marginal status by the Pallavas, now emerged as the dominant power in the Tamil region. Aditya I systematically expanded Chola territory at Pallava expense.

Loss of Control: Already by the mid-9th century, Pallava control over the Pandya realm was waning. Around 1243, local chiefs proclaimed independence.

Final Collapse

The end came swiftly for the Pallavas. The last ruler Aparajitavarman (879-897 CE) initially maintained cordial relations with the Cholas, who were his vassals. He even rewarded Aditya I with control of Thanjavur in 885 CE for his military assistance. However, the Cholas soon turned against their former overlords. In approximately 897 CE, Aditya I attacked and defeated Aparajitavarman in battle. The Pallava king was killed in the fighting. Following this decisive victory, the Chola dynasty annexed all Pallava territories, establishing their empire over Tamil Nadu. The once-mighty Pallava dynasty “disintegrated completely and faded into obscurity”.

LEGACY AND CULTURAL IMPACT

Despite their political eclipse, the Pallavas left an enduring legacy that profoundly shaped South Indian civilization:

Architectural Innovations: The Pallavas pioneered rock-cut and structural temple architecture in South India, establishing the foundation for the magnificent Chola temples of later centuries. Their architectural vocabulary—pyramidal vimanas, mandapas, gopurams—became standard elements of Dravidian temple design. UNESCO World Heritage Sites at Mahabalipuram testify to their architectural genius.

Script Development: The Pallava Grantha script not only facilitated Sanskrit learning in South India but also spread to Southeast Asia, influencing numerous writing systems across the region. The evolution of the modern Tamil script from Pallava Grantha demonstrates their linguistic contribution.

Religious Revival: Pallava patronage of the Bhakti movement transformed South Indian Hinduism, creating devotional traditions that remain vibrant today. The Tevaram and Divya Prabandham continue as living liturgical texts in temples across Tamil Nadu.

Cultural Diplomacy: Pallava maritime trade and cultural contacts with Southeast Asia facilitated the spread of Indian art, architecture, religion, and literature to countries like Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Myanmar. The Khmer temples of Angkor, for instance, show clear Pallava architectural influence.

Administrative Models: The Pallava system of local self-governance through Sabhas and village assemblies provided models for later dynasties. Their sophisticated land grant system and revenue administration influenced subsequent South Indian states.

Kanchipuram’s Prominence: Under the Pallavas, Kanchipuram achieved lasting fame as a temple town, center of learning, and pilgrimage destination. The city retains its religious and cultural significance to this day.

The Pallava dynasty, though it ruled for “only” about 600 years, created artistic and cultural monuments that have endured for over a millennium, continuing to inspire scholars, artists, and devotees worldwide.

CONCLUSION

The Pallavas of Kanchi stand as one of the most influential dynasties in South Indian history. From their modest origins as Satavahana feudatories to their emergence as a major power dominating the Tamil-Andhra region, the Pallavas demonstrated remarkable political, military, and cultural achievements. Their rulers—from the versatile Mahendravarman I to the great conqueror Narasimhavarman I to the master builder Narasimhavarman II—created a lasting legacy in art, architecture, literature, and administration.

also read: Early Medieval India