Indus valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization

Geographical Extension

Largest Ancient Civilization: Covered approximately 1.25 million square kilometers, making it the most extensive of the three early civilizations (Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Indus Valley).
Cardinal Boundaries: Extended from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from the Makran coast of Balochistan in the west to Meerut in the northeast.
Specific Limits:

• Western: Sutkagendor in Makran (Balochistan)
• Eastern: Alamgirpur in Western Uttar Pradesh
• Northern: Mandu in Jammu and Kashmir
• Southern: Daimabad in Maharashtra

River Systems: Primarily flourished in the alluvial plains of the Indus River and along the ancient Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
Modern Countries: Covered parts of present-day Pakistan, northwestern India, and parts of Afghanistan.
Total Sites: Over 1,000 sites discovered, with only six classified as major cities.

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Three Phases of Indus Valley Civilization
Early Harappan Phase (3300–2600 BCE)

• Ravi Phase: Named after the Ravi River.
• Kot Diji Phase: Representing the phase leading up to Mature Harappan.

Characteristics:

• Gradual movement of farmers from mountains to lowland river valleys.
• Development of trade networks with distant sources of raw materials.
• Domestication of crops including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton.
• Building of large walled settlements and expansion of trade.

Key Sites: Mehrgarh, Rehman Dheri, Amri, Kalibangan.
Mature Harappan Phase (2600–1900 BCE)

• Peak Period: Harappan culture reached its zenith and became the largest civilization in the ancient world.
• Urban Development: Early Harappan communities transformed into large urban centers.

Major Cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Ganeriwala, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi.
Standardization:

• Uniform use of baked bricks in 1:2:4 ratio.
• Standardized weights and measures.
• Common pottery styles, ornaments, and stamp seals with Indus script.

Civic Amenities:

• Houses with bathrooms, efficient roads, elaborate drainage and water systems.

Late Harappan Phase (1900–1300 BCE)

• Decline Period: Most mature Harappan cities were abandoned.
• New Settlements: People moved to new sites in Gujarat, Haryana, and western UP.

Cultural Changes:

• Disappearance of distinctive Harappan features.
• Deterioration in house construction techniques.
• Arrival of new groups with distinct burial practices.

Post-Harappan Cultures: Cemetery H Culture, Late Siswal Culture, Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) Culture.

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General Features

• Urban Civilization: First known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent.
• Bronze Age Culture: Mature phase lasted from 2500–1900 BCE.
• Peaceful Society: No evidence of warfare or military structures.
• Standardization: Uniformity in weights, measures, bricks, and urban planning.
• Advanced Technology: Metallurgy, precise measurements, engineering skills.
• Script: Undeciphered pictographic script on thousands of seals and objects.
• No Monumental Architecture: Unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia.

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Town Planning
Grid Pattern Layout

• Rectangular grids with streets running north-south and east-west.
• Streets intersected at right angles.
• House doors opened into narrow lanes.

City Division

• Two-Part Structure: Elevated citadel (west) and lower town (east).
• Citadel Features: Administrative buildings, granaries, courtyards.
• Lower Town: Brick houses for common people.
• Fortification: Fortified walls of mud bricks.

Construction Standards

• Bricks with 1:2:4 size ratio.
• Burnt bricks for drainage and construction; mud bricks for houses.
• No stone buildings.

Residential Features

• Multi-story houses with courtyards, wells, ventilated bathrooms, tiled floors.

Advanced Drainage System

• Covered drains alongside streets with gravitational flow.
• Rainwater harvesting systems, especially in Dholavira.

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Society
Social Structure

• Egalitarian Society: Limited evidence of social stratification.
• No Clear Hierarchy: Unlike Egypt or Mesopotamia.
• Social Differentiation: Economic, ethnic, or linguistic differences evident.
• Family Structure: Joint family system.

Religious Practices

• Worship of Mother Goddess (terracotta figurines).
• Pashupati Seal: Horned deity in yogic posture.
• Animal worship: Bulls, elephants, unicorns.
• Fire worship: Fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal.
• Nature worship: Trees and stones.

Cultural Life

• Language: Unknown, pictographic script.
• Leisure: Indoor games, toys, possible stadium at Dholavira.
• Fashion and Jewelry: Beads, gemstones, precious metals; cotton and wool clothing.
• Gender Roles: Women held significant religious and social importance.

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Economy and Trade
Economic Foundation

• Agriculture-Based: Fertile alluvial plains supported agriculture.
• Craft Specialization: Bead-making, pottery, metallurgy, seal carving.
• Barter System: No currency, trade through barter.

Internal Trade

• Large granaries at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
• Craft centers at Chanhudaro, Balakot (bangles), Lothal (beads).
• Transportation via carts and boats.

External Trade

• Reach: From Central Asia to Arabian Peninsula.
• Partners: Mesopotamia, Iran, Afghanistan, China.
• Maritime Ports: Lothal (dockyard), Dholavira, Sutkagen-dor.
• Evidence: Seals found at Mesopotamian sites and vice versa.

Imports

• Metals: Copper, lead, tin.
• Stones: Lapis lazuli (Afghanistan), semi-precious stones.
• Others: Jade (China), cedar wood (Himalayas), gold, silver.
• Luxury Items: Through maritime and overland routes.

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Art and Culture
Sculpture and Figurines

• Priest-King: Steatite statue from Mohenjo-daro.
• Dancing Girl: Bronze, about 11 cm tall.
• Terracotta figurines of women.

Seals

• Over 3,500 seals found.
• Made of steatite, terracotta, ivory, etc.
• Animal motifs, including unicorn, rhinoceros, elephant.
• Used for trade, amulets, identity markers.

Pottery

• Wheel-made, red with black painted designs.
• Designs: Geometric, pipal leaves, intersecting circles.

Metallurgy and Crafts

• Bronze alloys with arsenic, tin, or nickel.
• Precision bead-making with carnelian.
• Standardized crafts across sites.

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Agriculture
Primary Crops

• Rabi Crops: Wheat (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro), barley (Shortugai).
• Kharif Crops: Mustard, sesame, cotton (earliest evidence).
• Others: Dates, pulses (green gram, black gram, peas).
• Regional Variations: Rice at Lothal and Rangpur.

Techniques

• Flood-supported farming with summer monsoons.
• Use of canals, wells, river irrigation.
• Domestication of buffalo, cattle, sheep, goats.

Evidence

• Granaries, farming tools, organized field systems.

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Decline
Environmental Factors

• Climate change with prolonged drought.
• Drying of Ghaggar-Hakra river.
• River course changes, periodic flooding, earthquakes.

Internal Transformation

• Decline of characteristic features.
• Reduced craft specialization.
• Migration from large cities to smaller settlements.

Theories of Decline

• Gradual cultural transformation.
• Multiple contributing factors (environmental, economic, social).
• Aryan invasion theory largely rejected.

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Post-Harappan Civilization
Cemetery H Culture (1900–1300 BCE)

• Located primarily at Harappa.
• Pot burials, distinctive pottery styles.
• Retained some Harappan elements while introducing new ones.

Ochre Colored Pottery Culture (2000–1500 BCE)

• Spread in Indo-Gangetic Plain.
• Bronze Age culture with ochre-colored pottery.
• Cultural connections to Late Harappan and early Vedic elements.
• Evidence: Cart burials, copper artifacts.

Regional Cultures

• Siswal Culture: Haryana.
• Rangpur Culture: Gujarat.
• Swat Culture: Northwestern regions.
• Jhukar Culture: Sindh.

Cultural Continuity and Change

• Some Harappan craft techniques retained.
• New burial practices and pottery styles.
• Transition between Harappan civilization and later Vedic cultures.